Modern transportation is one of the largest branches of the World economy. About 80% of all of the World’s international trade is carried on the Oceans. The growth of industrial potential, reduction of an international division of labour, strengthening of economic ties between the countries on different continents, the increase of the volume of foreign trade, and the discovery of new marine mineral wealth deposits give rise to a steady increase in Ocean cargo transportation. The comparatively inexpensive, almost limitless characteristics of sea transport and the greater overall dimensions of transported freight, make it a truly global pathway.

Seaports are places where technical, navigational, legal and commercial services of sea transportation reside. Technical perfecting of the ways and means of sea transport has greatly reduced the amount of time a vessel spends between and in ports.

Navigational safety is provided by building better ships, coastal markers and navigation equipment, enabling vessels to travel along the safest routes.

The geography of navigable routes, their expansion, travel density and amount of use is determined by many factors: the location of the main shipping and receiving points, their special needs, the availability of fuel and points for trans-shipping, the shape of continental coastlines, availability of straits through large land masses and a whole complex of natural environments influencing navigation. The leading place in World navigation and maritime trade takes place on the Atlantic Ocean. The main navigation and trade routes for international exchange are concentrated between 60°N and 30°S.

The main navigable routes in the Atlantic Ocean are along certain latitudes, and are much shorter when compared with routes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. There is an especially high density of round-trip ship traffic across the North Atlantic Ocean connecting Europe with North America. The Pacific Ocean essentially concedes title to the Atlantic for amount of traffic, and it has only a few major shipping lanes. In the Indian Ocean the majority of shipping lanes passes across northern part; many from them begin or end outside of the Indian Ocean.

Many industrially-developed regions of the globe which are not presently venturing out into international Ocean trade have coastal areas which have a huge value for future marine navigation facilities. The most heavily navigable sea lanes are concentrated near their coasts, which have the largest seaports. In Europe, these areas are in the Baltic, North and Mediterranean Seas. The most important section of the World shipping lanes is just outside of the largest oil-exporting region-- the Persian Gulf. There is also international value for east and south-east Asian coastal areas.

World sea transportation volumes (in millions tons)

Sea transportation is the primary type of international cargo movement. Even countries which have not direct outlets to the sea, use sea transport to deliver freight Worldwide. The high profitability of sea transport can be understood by explaining that shipping lanes do not require any maintenance (excepting sites adjacent to ports and canals) and is thus the least expensive means of transportation/ton/unit of energy consumed.

There are two kinds of transportation in the shipping trade: regular “lines” and tramp operators. Shipping lines began in 1816, as a result of the establishment of a more or less constant track between New York and Liverpool. They established a regular crossing schedule and timetable between certain ports along the most expedient routes. General cargoes are transported usually on shipping-line vessels. The tramp (irregular) type of shipping represents single trips to variable locations, depending on the availability and type of cargo at various ports. Tramp vessels carry bulk freight, including petroleum.

Seaports are a part of sea transportation and takes its place as a major factor for a transport fleet location. The main users of marine trade ports are transporters of freight and passengers. The successful activity of a cargo and passenger transport fleet depends in many respects on the level of development of the ports and organisation of their fleet maintenance facilities.

There are more than 9,000 ports of all sizes throughout the World. Their foreign trade freight handling is over 7 billion tons each year Many large ports handle no more than one million tons annually, but there are also giant ports with a yearly freight turnover of 50, 100 and even 200 million of tons.

A trip for each vessel begins and ends in ports, where they are loaded and unloaded, where passengers embark and land, where supplies such as fuel, water and food, can be obtained as well as various other materials, repairs and other kinds of needs for safe and proper navigation.

The modern port is a highly mechanised complex that is closely connected to the economic life of internal areas of a country. In a port, there are two main types of land-use allocations: the water area and the surrounding territory. The water area includes the harbours, docks, internal waterways water locks and dry docks. The vessels in the water area are regulated by a navigational-dispatching service controlled by a harbour-master. Territory of the port consists of the moorings and terminals of various assignment (coal, grain, petroleum) at which cargo cranes, viaducts and transporters are in service. The larger areas are assigned to warehouses, and oil-storage facilities. There are usually numerous access roads for inland transport vehicles to enter into the port facilities. The port renders various services: pilotage, postal and telecommunications services, sanitation and fire services, security, etc.

Seaports have also become places that attract firms for oil refining and chemical, metallurgical and machinery production which receive raw materials by marine shipping.

Russia has 40 seaports with 248 loading factory complexes which annually ship 166 millions tons and common berthing frontage of 41.5 km. Eleven ports handle more than 70% of all foreign trade. A port modernisation program was adopted in 1992.

1.Novorossiysk 2.Nakhodka 3.Vostochnyy 4.Vanino 5.Tuapse 6.Vladivostok 7.Kholmsk 8.St. Petersburg 9.Murmansk 10.Archangelsk 11.Kaliningrad 12.Astrakhan' 13.Korsakov

St. Petersburg. Marine trade port.
The trade ports are divided into categories of universal and specialised. Universal ports handle both mass and general cargoes. These ports can also receive passenger vessels. They contain highly mechanised moorings and loading devices. Specialised ports and terminals receive and/or ship significant amounts of one type of cargo. Construction of this type of port has attracted large-tonnage vessels with deep-draughts which does not permit them to call on many ports of the World, and consequentially makes specialisation of the transport fleet a necessity.

An example of a highly specialised port is one designed for shipping crude petroleum and refining petroleum. In these ports, pipelines and pumping stations bring oil to the coast from far offshore, and pump crude petroleum immediately onto vessel, either lying at anchor or moored at piers. Specialised dry-cargo ports are mainly adapted for processing bulk cargoes. Such ports have high efficiency and, in volume of exported cargo, can exceed that of universal ports.

Fast loading and unloading of vessels in port is a mandatory condition for profitability, because long-duration idle times cannot utilise the technical advances brought about by modern shipbuilding.

With the growth of freight transport and port handling, it is especially important to have efficient port controls which interconnect all of its services. In primitive harbours, shipping is complicated by the difficulties of manoeuvring among many vessels whose movement is unknown or uncontrolled by a central coastal service. As a result, in ports such as these, there are often collisions between uncontrolled vessels.

The problems of safe passage and movement controls of vessels are most successfully solved with the assistance of a central harbour and coastal controlling system in constant contact with vessels which are equipped with modern aids to navigation, such as radiolocation (radar transponders), modern radios, television and computers.

As the need for petroleum in various industries increases, the substance has been transformed into the primary freight on the World Ocean. The petroleum is transported in large volumes over long distances. Most of this heavy flow is directed to Western Europe from the oil producing nations of the Near and Middle East. As a result of the creation of an oil refining industry in developing countries (which are the principal suppliers of petroleum), the transport of processed oil, including petrol, lubrication and heating oils, etc., has increased.

The tonnage of the World wide tanker fleet occupies the leading position in the transport fleet of the World. Between 1950 and 1986, capacity ha increased from 17 up to 128 million registered tons. The growth of weight - carrying ability of oil tankers began at the end of 1950s and reached an especially broad expansion when the Suez Canal was blocked in 1967. The route from the Persian Gulf around Africa to ports of European countries appears to be most expedient very large and deep-draught vessels. The “boom” burst in 1974-1975 when the global economic and power crises caused the suspension of construction of super-large vessels. Many giant oil tankers, were idled, and were used as temporary floating storage tanks for petroleum. The development of oil carriers included methods to ensure the greatest safety and a decreasing danger of contamination to the marine environment.

In addition to petroleum and refined petroleum products, the tanker fleet transports fresh water, cooking oil, wine, alcohol spirits, treacle, liquefied natural gas, liquid chemicals etc. The transportation of liquefied natural gas, the most convenient and economically expedient power source, is done special vessels: liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers. These are built with several individual tanks made of special alloys with reliable isolation between the tanks. The most complex of all kinds of cargo vessels are large-tonnage LNG carriers, transporting liquefied gas at low temperatures (down to -162°C).

Gross capacity (millions of registered tons)

Number of vessels (thousand of units)

The second place in tonnage after oil tankers is held by specialised dry-cargo vessels (bulk ships, ore-carriers, coalers etc.), intended for transportation of mass freights: iron ore, coal, grain, woods, salts, etc. With use of these energy-efficient, high-speed, large-tonnage vessels, turn-around transportation time and therefore, transportation costs have been reduced by over three times.

Combination vessels belong in this group, combining the qualities of the oil tanker and the bulk carrier. The design of these vessels allows transportation of dry freight in one direction and in the other, bulk (oil-tankers, oil-ore-carriers etc.). The use of combination vessels under conditions of steady goods traffic is expedient because there are no empty trips.

The geography of the World’s marine routes is constantly changing, due to changes in the World economy, with the discovery of new and exhaustion of old sources of raw material and with the changing role of countries in the international marketplace. The significant effects on the expansion of international exchange are both quantitative and qualitative growth in types of marine trade. The increase in weight capacity, the specialisation in the types of transportation and the increase in the speed of movement have allowed the expansion of the types of goods transported by the marine fleet.

Transportation of iron ore

 

Numbers indicate volume in millions of tons

Among dry freights transported by ships, iron ore is the primary cargo. It is economically profitable to transport high-grade iron ore (50 - 70% iron content). The chief consumers of iron ore are countries with developed metallurgy industries which do not have reserves of this raw material. The ore is transported by specialised vessels (ore-carriers) and by large-tonnage combination vessels. The largest exporters of ore are Australia, Brazil and West Africa.

Coal and coke are major cargoes in intercontinental transportation. In the last decades, the extraction costs in Western European countries have grown, and it has become less expensive to import it than to mine it locally. Almost half of the World’s export of coal transported by sea goes to the USA. Coal exports from Australia and South Africa are growing. In transporting coal and coke, the greatest volumes are carried by bulk ships and combination vessels.

The volume of the sea transport of grain changes, depending on the season and crop. In the international grain trade, wheat, rice, corn, barley, oats, rye, sorghum and millet have the highest volumes. The main shipping ports are located on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the USA and Canada. Transporting grain is most often carried out by bulk freights carriers. In the last several years, oil tankers have been used for this purpose, reducing operating costs by carrying products in both directions. Rice is primarily transported this way within the limits of Asia.

The transportation of bauxite and alumina constitutes a significant place in bulk ore traffic on the World Ocean. From countries of tropical and subtropical belts, where the basic reserves of bauxite are concentrated, paths are taken to countries where aluminium is produced (USA, Canada, countries of Western Europe and Japan) . Transportation of bauxite and alumina is conducted by specialised vessels with weight capacities of 50-70 thousand tons.

The middle of the 1960s marked a revolution in the handling of marine freight traffic. Huge amounts of freight, earlier shipped in boxes, bags, bales and packages of different shapes and sizes began to be placed in containers. The containers are large, rectangular metal boxes of varying capacities. There are more than 80 types of them, but the greatest distribution is of two types: 12 metres long and 6 metres long. The container that is 6 metres long has a maximum gross weight (MGW) of about 20 tons, and has been adopted as the standard size and the capacity of container ships and productivity figures for this type of cargo is measured by the numbers of 6 metre-long, 20 ton MGW containers handled over a certain period of time.

Containerisation has caused the creation of a new, specialised type of vessel. The first container ships at the end of the 1960s had vertical loading into holds which could contain up to 750 containers and had speeds of up to 20 knots. Modern container ships carry up to 3,000 containers and develop speeds of up to 33 knots. In 1969, the general capacity of container ships was 2 million registered tons, and by 1990, it had reached 24 million registered tons.

The increasing rate of transportation of automotive products has promoted construction of vessels with a horizontal way of loading, through the bow, stern or deck hatches. Such vessels are called "roll-on, roll-off (ro-ro)" ships. Automobiles, trucks or trailers with freight go directly and independently into the holds of "ro-ro" ships.

At the end of the 1960s, a new type of vessel was introduced into the world transport fleet, which provided a means for the effective movement of integrated cargoes. This vessel was called a “lighter.” This type of vessel is able to transport a specific number of smaller, loaded barges, weighing from 400 to 850 tons. Loading, unloading and trans-shipping lighters can be accomplished by special equipment without making port calls. Lighters can be used to deliver freight in estuaries, shallow ports and uncontrolled coastal areas, and also for mixed transport: “the river-the sea.”

Loaded lighters have shallow draughts and can be towed on rivers, lakes, channels in a depth of continent on hundreds kilometres. The use of lighters increases productivity in cargo handling by 5-10 times, reduces a dockage time in port and reduces the need to build port facilities. Lighters transport bulk cargoes. With small modifications, they can be used as container ships and/or for transportation of heavy trucks and construction vehicles.

More than 150 countries use sea transportation to some degree, but each has not an identical number of vessels and their gross tonnage is widely varied. An unreasonably large “flag” fleet of a number of countries does not necessarily correspond with either that country’s level of industrial development or volume of foreign trade. It is a so-called fleet of a flag of "convenience". Liberia, Panama and several other countries permit registration of foreign cargo and passenger vessels for a small fee. The acceptance of a flag of "convenience" flag is dictated partly for commercial and partly for political reasons. Flags of convenience permit registry at a small fraction of the charge for registry in highly industrialised countries, and permit countries at war to continue international trade during the conflicts. False flags bring huge profits to trans- and multinational corporations and marine shipping companies.

For a long time, vessels transported not only freight, but also passengers. From incidental and unscheduled trips by sailing ships from the 17th until the first half of the 19th centuries the shipping industry evolved into a strong and highly organised business enterprise. In the middle of the 19th century, a vessel had about 100 places for passengers and travelled at a speed of 9 knots. Within 90-100 years gigantic Ocean liners were transporting up to 2 thousand persons on a single trip, at speeds of up to 35 knots. From the beginning of mass intercontinental passenger transportation, the leading position was assumed by lines connecting European ports with the Atlantic coast of North America. These lines built and operated the largest passenger liners, which were extremely comfortable and fast. The number of passengers crossing Atlantic reached up to 2.5 million people in a single year. Now, trans-ocean passenger transportation is insignificant because it is expensive and longer in time when compared to air transport. The global distribution of passenger liners varies with the time of year, and mainly used in connection with tourist visits to different regions of the World Ocean.

A broad expansion in marine traffic is seen in ferry systems, which allow the distribution of freight and promotes the development of rail and automobile tourism. The ferry system provides lines with a small fleet with steady cargo and passenger transportation over relatively short distances and has a high frequency of dispatch.

There are more than 300 ferry lines operating in the World. The most heavily used are in Japan, the USA, Canada, and many European countries. The volume of ferry traffic in the Baltic Sea is also high, where about 50 ferries are operating.

Ferry crossings accelerate delivery of freights, which is especially is important for perishable goods.

Over the next few years, Russia’s volume of sea transportation will reach 210-230 millions of tons. Implementation of such transport usage will require a national fleet with a general displacement of 13.5-14.5 million tons. Such tonnage will ensure that more than half of the transport of Russian export-import marine trade is under Russian registry. The program to revive the Russian merchant marine fleet provides for a renewal of the fleet between 1992-2000 in dry-cargo bulk, bulk, combination and passenger vessels of various types and displacement by volume, which are necessary to replace the outdated fleet.

Number of type-vessels in the fleet, in %

Weight-capacity, in %

On May 27, 1919, a four-engine seaplane with an American crew completed the first aircraft-crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, landing safely in Lisbon, Portugal, after making a refuelling/resupply stop in the Azores Islands. This event demonstrated the broad capabilities of aircraft. In 1935, the first trans-Atlantic scheduled airline routes were established, and in 1936, trans-Pacific air routes were added to the schedules.. The appearance of new high-speed, high passenger-volume aircraft, with increased safety and regular flight schedules, have very sharply increased the volume of passenger transportation. For example, by the start of the 1960s they begun to exceed trans-Atlantic marine transportation .

Along with international passenger transportation, there is increasing revenue from air freight transportation. The major cause of the expansion of the air-freight industry is linked to the introduction of wide-body aircraft. The air cargo is fastest, though it is also the most expensive. Computers, electronic equipment, TV sets, radios, clothing and footwear are all shipped by air freight methods. A significant part of air freights is made up of fruits, vegetables and other perishable goods. A special place in transoceanic transportation is used for postal delivery and valuable and urgent packages and other cargo.

The increase in the number of large-tonnage vessels, their increased speed and significantly large presence in a number of regions, has made requirements for strengthening of safety measures to be strengthened. It is necessary for navigators to determine their positions with great accuracy and receive forecasts beforehand about the weather and other conditions of navigation. Research and development has helped to perfect marine navigational equipment, along with a broad network of coastal aids to navigation.

The navigational equipment on marine routes are, in part, a system of coastal and floating artificial monitors.. These instruments along the coasts of the World Ocean allows marine routes to exist at greater distances from the coast, and shows shorelines, hazards, weather conditions and other factors.

Lighthouses and navigational markers relate to coastal navigational safety. The lighthouses are a major part of the safety of coastal navigation. They are built on high capes, at port entrances, bays and gulfs, or at river mouths, and sometimes on rocks, reefs or shoals. Each lighthouse differs from another by tower exterior, colouring and markings, and the type of light. The strong light sources of modern lighthouses provide visibility at distances of up to 20 miles or more. Many lighthouses are automated, with separate and independent supplies of electrical power, high-power optical devices, radio beacons and sound signalling horns, bells and whistles. Along the marine coasts, there are about 1,500 lighthouses with manned attendants and about 8,500 unmanned installations.

As protection from hazards to navigation away from shore, floating lights (light-ships) are used.. It is a usual requirement that the vessels are anchored in position with precise, known co-ordinates, have sharp and distinctive colouring and be of unique, yet similar shapes. In shallow depths, instead of lightships, lighthouses are built on marine platforms. Radio beacons are often placed on drilling platforms far from shore.

Many reference points along marine coasts are simple marker buoys or illuminated buoys. The system of marker buoys consists of various forms and colours of international standards, and warn of underwater hazards to safe navigation and/or mark navigable routes and channels in shallow water. Marine buoys weigh about 30 tons or more. In addition to shallow water buoys, more and more are being installed on the high seas near underwater hazards and also at the outer approaches to ports.

The perfect tools for navigational safety of vessels at sea are radio navigational systems (RNS), the operation of which are based on the laws of distribution of radio waves and measurement of phase differences in electromagnetic oscillations. RNS consist of a network of coastal radio stations transmitting at certain (different) radio frequencies to ships with receivers for these special signals. and working in a certain mode in relation to ship receiving instrumentation. Utilising this means of navigation allows ships to fix their positions on the open ocean with a great degree of accuracy.

A wide distribution of marine navigation systems was achieved by the use of Decca and Loran-C. Radio receivers of various types were installed on a majority of modern vessels and were used to determine the position of the ship using specified radio signals from the system transmitters. For near-shore navigation, long-wave phase RNS are used. One of them, RNS Decca, has. 55 chains of this type of system in various regions of globe, operating under the control of the different countries. The operational distance from the transmitter is 250-300 miles, with a positional accuracy of 0.1-0.3 miles at distances up to 100 miles at all times. The domestic radio-phase system, RSVT-1, with an average operational distance of 250-300 miles, has been installed in the Arctic Region and in separate Russian seas and lakes.

Loran-C is one method used for determining the position of a ship on open areas of the northern part of Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. A Loran-C network consists from one “master” and three-four “slave” stations. All stations work on one frequency. The master station periodically transmits radio signals which, in addition to being received by ships at sea, are received by the slave stations, and with some delay, re-transmit the signals across various parts of the Ocean. The signals of the master and all slave stations are received by a vessel with the help of a special receiver. By using the signals transmitted from two or more Loran-C chains situated far apart, (in order to prevent signal interference), a ship can find its geographic position on the open Ocean to within 0.5-1 mile at ranges up to 900 miles from the transmitter. At ranges from 900 to 3,000 and more from the master station, the ship can find its position to within 2-5 miles.

For geographically positioning ships anywhere on the World Ocean, a super long-wave RNS, "Omega," is used. There are 8 coastal stations in the system. The stations of the system work continuously, radiating signals on certain frequencies alternated in certain sequence. These signals can be received at distances of 5000-7000 miles at any time of day, and under any meteorological conditions. The work of RNS "Omega" is based on measuring at the point of reception, radio frequency phase-differences of the identical frequency which was from two coast stations. Using signals of RNS "Omega" for distances less than 600-650 miles it is not recommended. The error of determination of a vessel’s position usually does not exceed 1-2 miles.

Navigational artificial satellites of the Earth (ASE) are widely used in marine navigation. As a navigational reference point with known coordinates, ASE continuously radiates ultrahigh frequency radio signals. Fast flying satellites in low (~1000 km) polar orbits are normally used for marine navigation. The polar satellite rotates on the plane of a meridian and as a result of the Earth’s rotation, periodically passes above all regions of globe. For one revolution of polar orbit, an ASE covers a zone equal to 120° of longitude on the surface of the Earth. The braking influence of atmosphere is insignificant, and the 50-60 kg satellites can exist tens of years. An example of an ASE is the American "Transit" satellite navigation system. It is a complex network of 6 satellites, communicating with a network of ground stations used by an unlimited number of vessels with receivers. Using this system, vessel positions are determined with an accuracy of 0.1-0.2 miles.

Initiation of the Soviet ASE "Cosmos-1.000" started the domestic space navigational system "Tsikada", intended for finding the position of maritime and fishing vessels of the USSR in any point on the Ocean. A new global navigational system, "Glonass," (Russia) and "Navstar GPS**" (USA) presently permits seafarers to continuously know their position on the Ocean to within ten meters. (**GPS = Global Positioning System). A mathematical processing subset of the GPS system permits finding a position to within 30 cm anywhere on the Earth.

The general coordination of weather and Ocean research and also hydrographic and meteorological information for navigation at sea is maintained under the United Nations’ World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). Russia is a member of WMO. Special broadcasting or departmental radio stations of the coastal countries transmit actual weather condition information and sea and ice conditions and forecasts within their zones of responsibility in a timely fashion. Special broadcasts warn seafarers about dangerous weather conditions, such as increases in winds of 20 m/sec and more, the occurrence of large waves of over 8 m in height, fog, or visibility of less than 1 km. The broadcasts are frequent and also give information cancelling the warnings.

Coastal nations are engaged in reporting hazards to the safety of navigation, and the avoidance thereof. The primary services of these nations are the compilation and issuance of general publications for navigational safety (navigational cards, pilot books, tables of tides, hydrometeorologic and bathymetric charts and atlases etc.); installation and maintenance of navigational aids (lighthouses, signal lights, navigational buoys and markers in channels and waterways); and development of new and better means of navigation.

National hydrographic services carefully monitor and update all changes in navigational situations and inform seafarers regarding occurrences of subsurface and/or surface dangers.

The International Organisation (IHO) was formed with the purpose of coordinating the activities of hydrographic services, standardising marine navigational charts and navigational documents, standardising and accepting reliable and efficient methods of hydrographic surveying; and developing sciences connected with hydrography and oceanographic instrumentation.

The IHO issues and distributes the following publications and documents:

1. IHO Year-book

2. International Hydrographic Review.

3. International Hydrographic Bulletin.

Countries belonging to the International hydrographic organisation:
Europe: 1 Netherlands 2 Belgium 3 Monaco
Asia: 4 Syria 5 Cyprus 6 Bahrain 7 United Arab Emirates 8 Singapore
America 9 Dominican Republic 10 Guatemala 11 Trinidad and Tobago 12 Surinam 13 Uruguay

After several international conferences on hydrography, (Washington - 1899, St. Petersburg - 1912, London - 1919) the International Hydrographic Bureau was created which later become an integral part of the IHO. The Convention on the creation of the IHO was adopted by the United Nations in 1967 and came into force on September 22, 1970. The organisation is a consulting establishment only, and does not have the right to issue instructions to hydrographic services of the countries participating in the Convention. The organisational staff and Headquarters is located in Monaco. The IHO, together with the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO, issues the General Bathymetric Chart of Oceans (GEBCO). In the Russian Federation, membership in the IHO is assigned to the Head Department of Navigation and Oceanography of Ministry of Defence of Russian Federation (HDNO-GUNiO).

The IHO, together with the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), maintains the world system of the navigational warnings (World Service of Navigational Warnings). It began this activity on April 1, 1980. The system covers all of the World Ocean and is divided into 16 zones of responsibility of coastal countries for navigational information.

The sea floor is covered with a network of cables ensuring reliable telephone and telegraphic communication between continents. The idea of connecting continents by underwater communication arose shortly after the invention of the telegraph. The first underwater telegraphic cable, 45 km long, was laid in August, 1850 in the Pas-de-Calais (Dover) Strait, in August, 1850. It was made of copper wire that was insulated with gutta percha. Thereafter, the cable design was improved, having a greater number of conductors, using new and better insulation and for protection from damage on the sea floor, the cable was covered with a series of spiral steel wires, forming an “armour. The experiment was successful and permitted the start of activities leading to the laying of a cable across the Ocean. The first attempt at installing a telegraphic communication cable between Europe and America in August, 1857, was unsuccessful. However, on August 5, 1858 two large Naval vessels, "Niagara" and "Agamemnon," completed the "great experiment". A telegraphic line was connected between Ireland and the island of Newfoundland (Canada). The existence of this line of communication was short. The cable could not sustain the pressure at the sea floor, and the line stopped working.

The largest vessel built in the 19th century, "Great Eastern," possessing a high degree of manoeuvrability and stability was used for the next attempt at making the transoceanic cable, in 1865. Regular telegraphic communication between Europe and America was established in 1866. From that day, submarine telegraphic cables began to be installed at all ends of the Earth.

Main underwater communications cable lines

When the telephone was invented, submarine cables underwent further development. The first underwater telephone lines did not exceed 200 km, because the sound faded after that distance. Only with the appearance of underwater amplifiers, which were installed in the cables and were placed on the bottom, did the problem of transoceanic voice communication become resolved. The first trans-Atlantic telephone cable (TAT-1) was installed and made operational 1955-1956 and had a length of 4300 km. This cable was laid by the English cable vessel, "Monarch". The depth of submersion of the cable reaches 4,200 m in some places.102 amplifiers were built into the cable to maintain the signal strength.

An important step in the development of voice communication across and under the Ocean was the invention of an armourless cable. The protective steel covering of the cable was substituted by an internal lifting cable made from steel wires. The outside covering protects a cable from damages in shallow and coastal sites, but at great depths it is needed only at the time of the cable emplacement. The ability to lay cable over long distances permitted the beginning of the implementation of a global communications network. The first link was the “Cantat” trans-Atlantic line, connecting London with Montreal.

Introducing the remaining links, "Compac", "Seacom" etc., allows many countries of the World to receive reliable voice communication. The development of underwater cable communications circuits continues to be expanded with the widening of the spectrum of transmitted frequencies and the increase in the number of communication channels.

The construction of a underwater communication circuit and at a modern high technological level remains a difficult and labour-consuming operation requiring large material inputs. Therefore the cables should be designed for long duration, failure-free operation. The longevity of a cable has been advanced by intelligently designing a cable with state-of-the-art amplifiers, and entrenching it into the sea floor. It is, therefore, essential that the depths and structure and composition of the sea floor be known prior to installation.

Cable laying is a specialised task, and special ships-cable layers- have been designed with “wells” capable of storing 7,500 km of stacked cable. On these vessels, there are winches with high-capacity drums and special sheaves, high-power engines and other equipment for cable laying at great depths. These vessels are highly reliable and manoeuvrable, and have state-of-the-art navigational instruments.. Cable laying with in-line underwater amplifiers is conducted as a non-stop operation.

The appearance of communications satellites suspended further development of submarine cables for some time, but research, development and installation of these have since been reinitiated since it was discovered that submarine cables do not compete, but rather, supplement each other.

New advances in the development of submarine cables have been made by using transmission lines made of optical fibres. The core is light-carrying glass fibres inside an aluminium tube that is strengthened by a steel wire and protected by an armour of a polymer, for example, Kevlar. The diameter of a new cable is one-third that of the older copper-conductor cable, and the number of channels available can be as many as 40,000, although there are usually about 5,000 circuits available. Such cables have already been placed on bottoms of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. A different version of the cable will result in the creation of the first transcontinental fibre-optic communication circuit, and the design is now being studied. It will pass from the territory of Russia’s western boundary to the Far East, with feeder lines from and to Europe and Japan. This line, together with the trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific lines will allow the organisation of a modern, World network for communication.

Cable ship "Ingul".
Displacement 6,900 tons, length 130 m, draught 5.2 m