The boundless expanse of the Ocean, its indomitable misbehaviour and silent obedience, this unique game of differences - all of these, attracted the attention of Man in ancient times.

The first tentative excursions onto the Ocean by ancient Man taught him that without a knowledge and understanding of its laws and forces, travelling and working on the sea would be foolish and chaotic. It is difficult enough just to live on its shores, let alone, to float upon it and to extract food from it.

The accumulation of knowledge about the Ocean began a very long time ago. For centuries, Man assembled these facts, made observations and acquired skills for navigation. Often the price of this knowledge was long periods of time away from home and comforts, and sometimes the price was the life of the mariner.

In the middle of the 19^th century, Man, using his achievements in the knowledge of physical sciences and his successes in engineering and shipbuilding, harnessed the bases of a science dealing with the Ocean. At that time oceanologists, hydrologists, mathematicians, physics, chemists, biologists, geologists, geographers, merchant and Naval seamen, doctors and engineers were given the opportunity to contribute to the development of this new science. In order to understand the Ocean and its processes, they developed modern engineering methods and instruments and placed them on ships, aircraft, stationary offshore platforms and artificial space-borne satellites.

The understanding of the nature of the Ocean is presently plays a major role in our knowledge of the development of global processes in both the natural environment and in society in general.
 
 

Man has been attracted to the seemingly limitless expanses of the oceans and seas, pools in wide rivers and lakes from time immemorial. It is probable that ancient people observed animals clinging to floating trees on the rivers which saved them in times of floods. These events and observations probably gave ancient people the idea of using trunks of trees to carry them across water obstructions.

Different peoples in different parts of the World used different means to construct the first rudimentary floating objects used to carry people and objects. They used various improvised materials that were capable of carrying people and freights inside, and keeping the water outside. They were made from wood, bark, skins of animals, bunches of reeds or rushes and so on.

From logs, they progresses to logs joined to make rafts, then canoes, hollowed out from whole tree trunks, and later, frame boat with planks on the outside. These were the first steps into the Ocean by Man, the Navigator.

Information from these ancient times is very scarce. In a part of the modern Netherlands, archaeologists found a canoe made from a single tree, which was used 8,000 years ago, and in a part England - an oar, which has been dated as 9,000 years old.
 
 

I. Archaeological evidence of ancient voyages

1. Boats made from bark

Boats with panelling from bark were known in Asia, Australia, coastal regions of East Africa, and North and South America, where the name canoe originated. For increased strength, such boats were built over wooden skeletons, the parts of which were tied together with plant roots, over which large bands of tree bark were stretched and tied.

2. Rafts made from logs

Rafts made from logs found an application for transportation of freight, especially on rough rivers and in shallow waters in all time periods since Man ventured into the water.

3. Boats made from animal skins

An Eskimo kayak, whose frame was made from wood or whale ribs over which skins of seals were completely sewn, except for an opening for the rower, whose outer clothes tightly sealed this opening, not allowing water to get by and into the interior of the kayak. For distant sailing, the Eskimos used spacious umiaks. Round boats of this type were used on most of the rivers of North and South America.

4. Rafts made from reeds, papyrus, rushes

More than 2,000 years BC the Egyptians built simple and well controlled rafts from dense bunches of dried papyrus tied together. Similarly-constructed rafts and boats made from reeds, rushes and bamboo are still used in South America and Central Africa.

5. Rafts made from pumpkins

In ancient Mexico, Nicaragua and in Peru by the Incas, rafts made from pumpkins were used for navigation on internal reservoirs and lakes. Dried pumpkins were spitted on bamboo sticks. On top, a bearing surface was covered by bunches of grass and reeds.

6. Boats made from twigs

Boats, wrapped around by twigs, were built in the "Land between the rivers" (between the Tigris and Euphrates), and also in Vietnam, Ireland and North America. A skeleton of boat was wrapped around by twigs, and then tarred.

7. Rafts made from bark

The inhabitants of the island of Tasmania built rafts from the bark of Eucalyptus trees. Packs of bark were connected by straps of bast fibre (cordage). Boards were made from more thin bundles than the bottom. They were stable in stormy weather.

8. Canoes and pirogues

During the Stone Age in Europe, canoes were made from the burned out straight trunks of oak or pine trees. They were also used by the inhabitants of the coasts of Africa, Madagascar and islands of the Pacific Ocean. American Indians named this type of canoe, "pirogue."

9. Boats with wooden planking

Boats with a wooden planking were developed and improved over many centuries. The planks were tied by basts and tendons of animals. Boats of this type, for example, Chinese junks, are comfortable, roomy and seaworthy.

10. Multi-hull vessels from wood (Catamaran, Proa )

For extra stability when going over ocean waves, the inhabitants of the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans weighted a beam and placed it parallel to the boat, fastened by cross members. These were called outriggers (proa). For even greater seaworthiness of vessels, two boats were sometimes fastened together (catamaran), with cross bulkheads and increased decks and planking. Boat of these designs are still used at present.

11. Rafts made from skins of the animals

Such rafts were used by the inhabitants of treeless areas of the "Land between the rivers", Assyria and India. Rafts represented platforms, to which inflated skins of the animals were attached. Similar rafts without changes are still in use today.

12. Rafts made from jugs

On internal reservoirs in Egypt, India and North Korea rafts were made from connected earthenware jugs with a flooring of bamboo.
 
 

In the Nile River valley, an ancient nation, Egypt, existed for several thousand years. It is known that about 8,000 years ago, Egyptians sailed the Nile on papyrus boats under sails. With the improvement of the nautical quality of vessels and the increased development of trade, Egyptians left for other places in the Mediterranean, reaching the coasts of Tyre and Sidon and the island-nation of Cyprus. By 2,500 BC, whole fleets of vessels sailed on the Mediterranean carrying trade goods from one place to another. In the writings of one of the ancient papyruses, it is mentioned that forty ships delivered Sicilian pine from Libya. Sicilian pine, Lebanese cedar and acacia were used in the construction of ships. Development of trade with her southern neighbours forced the Egyptians to make voyages on the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Arabia and along the coast of Africa to the land of aroma - Punt (a region of Somalia).

In subsequent centuries, Egyptian seamen made more brave sea voyages. In the 5^th century BC, they reached Straits of Gibraltar, and modern science believes that they used their knowledge of the monsoons to reach the coast of India. 

1. Large oasis  2. Mines  3. Portage  4. Bypass channel  5. Marine and river navigation of the Egyptians

II. A boat from the Great Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu)

A boat constructed of cedar and acacia from the Great Pyramid of the Pharaoh Cheops (Khufu). Its length is 43.4 m, width 4 m, weight 30 tons.

III. Vessel from the reign of Queen Hatshepsut

At the time of pharaoh Sakhura, an expedition to the country of Punt was completed by the delivery in Egypt of huge quantity of valuable goods. Egyptians imported gold, pitch, ivory and aromatic trees.

In 1,500 BC, Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut sent an expedition to Punt, which was reached overland from the Nile city of Coptos to the Red Sea harbour of Quiseir. From there, the cargo was loaded on five 30-oared vessels for the rest of the journey back to Egypt.

IV. Alexandria or Pharos Lighthouse

In 332-331 BC, Alexander the Great ordered the construction of the city of Alexandria, in the Nile River delta. This city - port, constructed on the designs of the Greek, Dinocrates, was famous for centuries for its Academy, Library and one of "Seven Wonders of the World," the Pharos Lighthouse, which was subsequently destroyed in later years.
 
 

1.Navigation of the Phoenicians 2.Major trade routes in the 6th century BC 3.Phoenician city - states 4.Phoenician city-colonies 5.The territory of Phoenicia 6.Coastal areas colonised by Phoenicians 7.Areas visited by Phoenicians

In the middle of the 3^rd Millennium BC, the Phoenicians had great trade routes on the Mediterranean (The Great Sea of Sunset), on the coast of which a number of colonies were located. A great number of these colonies were on the north African coast of Libya. The largest city - colony was Carthage.

By the 2^nd Millennium BC, the Phoenician empire ruled the entire Mediterranean region. The Phoenicians held the knowledge of navigation deeply secret. It is known, for example, that a pilot from Carthage, seeing that he was being pursued by a Roman ship, purposely grounded and wrecked his vessel on a bank, in order to prevent the Romans from finding out his maritime knowledge.

Expeditions In search of tin in the beginning of the 1^st Millennium BC. The Phoenicians left the Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar (Pillars of Hercules), sailing into the Atlantic Ocean, reaching all the way north to the Scilly Isles (Tin Islands) in the English Channel, and to the coast of the island nation of Great Britain (Albion). They even penetrated to the coasts of the Baltic Sea in search of amber.

Travelling to the south-west from the Straits of Gibraltar, the Phoenicians opened the island of Madeira and the Canary Islands to trade. They have given us the name for two parts of the World - Europe and Asia. During Phoenician times, great advances were made in the sciences of Astronomy and Mathematics, and these have been passed down to modern times. Some modern archaeologists argue that Phoenicians may even have reached the east coast of South America (Pernambuco).
 
 

1. Koley from Samos. 631 BC 2. Eutimen. 6th century BC 3. Democritus. 5th - 4th centuries BC 4. Herodotus. 455-447 BC 5. Nearchus. 325-324 BC 6. Greek city - states 8th - 5th centuries BC 7. Greece in the 5th century BC 8. Coastal areas colonised by the Greeks.

In ancient Greek legends and myths, it is told that several great marine voyages, including the Odyssey and the search for the Golden Fleece by the Argonauts to the coast of Kolkhida where the mystical emperor of the Greek island of Ithaca lived, and also, participation in the Trojan Wars. Their voyages, which are said to have occurred in the 12^th century BC, are immortalised in the epic poems by Homer - "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey", which were written in approximately the 8^th century BC
 
 

Development of the Mediterranean coast proceeded in subsequent centuries. This progress promoted the sailings of Koley from Samos (631 BC), Democritus (5^th century BC) and Herodotus (455-447 BC). From some historical items, it was said that in the 6^th century BC, Evtimen from Ancient Massalia sailed in search of the source of the Nile by travelling to the Atlantic Ocean, and south along western coast of Africa to the mouth of the Senegal (Bambotus) River.

The most distant voyage, however, was accomplished by the Greek astronomer and geographer, Pytheas. Between 326 and 324 BC, he sailed to the north along the west coast of Europe in search of tin and amber, reaching the farthest northern countries inhabited by Man: Thule (island or region of Trondheim fjord in the western part of Norway). Pytheas was the first scientist to describe the southern coast of the North Sea. He located the region where amber was produced, located near the mouth of the Elbe River, reached the western-most point of the British Isles - Land's End (Cape Bellerium), visited Ireland (Eire) and the Orkney (Orcades) Islands. These travels by Pytheas are attested to by his exacting geographical descriptions of the coastlines and of the ways of life among the tribes he visited.

By the 4^th century BC,. the fleet of Alexander the Great was comprised of the unified Greek, Phoenician and Cypriot fleets and had become the most powerful fleet in the Mediterranean region. In 325 BC, Nearchus, the Naval Commander of Alexander the Great, sailed down the Indus River from Patala into the Arabian sea (Erythreum Mare) on vessels which carried a 5,000-man army. They passed along the northern Arabian Sea coast up to the Strait of Hormuz, passed Qeshm (Oprakta) Island from the south, and reached the mouth of the Euphrates River. Thus, a marine route from the countries of Minor Asia to India was opened.
 
 

1.Polybius. 3rd century BC  2. Eudoxus. About 120 BC  3. Scipio Aemilianus. 2nd century BC  4. Diogenes, 1st century AD  5. Gippal, beginning of the 1st century AD 6. Alexander, 1st century AD  7. Major trade routes in the 2nd century AD 8. Roman Empire at the time of Trajan. 117 AD

Along the coast of the Apennine Peninsula (Italy), there were no convenient bays or gulfs for strong ports for the fleet of ships. The Romans, therefore, began work to broaden natural harbours and to build artificial harbours. For example, a convenient artificial harbour was created in Ostia. For maintenance of the needs of the fleet along the Adriatic Sea coast, the Romans constructed and developed the port of Brindisi (Brindisium).

Having taken the experience and knowledge of shipbuilding and the methods of navigation from the Greeks, the Romans created a strong fleet of their own. While the trade fleet made insignificant progress on extended voyages, the Roman Navy sailed to the far limits of the Roman Empire.

In the 2^nd century BC, a fleet under Roman commander Scipio Aemilianus made a long voyage along west coast of Africa (Liberia). From his reports, we know the vessels reached the mouth of the Senegal (Bambotus) River in search of gold.

Roman ships also transported the Legions of the emperor Julius Caesar to the British Isles.

Brisk winds were observed in the southern part of the Red Sea, and in the northern part of the Indian Ocean.

The knowledge of the timing of the monsoons allowed seafarers in the 1^st century AD to conduct a brisk trade with India and to make even longer voyages, all the way to China. Before the 3^rd century BC, Greece gradually lost its power on the sea, and the Roman Empire proceeded to become the major power on the expanses of the Mediterranean.

Along the coast of the Apennine Peninsula (Italy), there were no convenient bays or gulfs for strong ports for the fleet of ships. The Romans, therefore, began work to broaden natural harbours and to build artificial harbours. For example, a convenient artificial harbour was created in Ostia. For maintenance of the needs of the fleet along the Adriatic Sea coast, the Romans constructed and developed the port of Brindisi (Brindisium).

Having taken the experience and knowledge of shipbuilding and the methods of navigation from the Greeks, the Romans created a strong fleet of their own. While the trade fleet made insignificant progress on extended voyages, the Roman Navy sailed to the far limits of the Roman Empire.

In the 2^nd century BC, a fleet under Roman commander Scipio Aemilianus made a long voyage along west coast of Africa (Liberia). From his reports, we know the vessels reached the mouth of the Senegal (Bambotus) River in search of gold.

Roman ships also transported the Legions of the emperor Julius Caesar to the British Isles.

Brisk winds were observed in the southern part of the Red Sea, and in the northern part of the Indian Ocean.

The knowledge of the timing of the monsoons allowed seafarers in the 1^st century AD to conduct a brisk trade with India and to make even longer voyages, all the way to China.
 
 

Drawings of notable capes, coastal mountains and rocks were of invaluable assistance to the first seafarers. At night or in bad weather, however, these were not readily visible, and therefore it was difficult for seafarers to navigate properly near the coasts. Bonfires were sometimes lit on the coasts to serve as landmarks. To increase the range of visibility of the bonfires from the sea, these fires burned on specially-constructed turrets, towers and signals columns, which were established along the coast.

Lighthouses for navigation were of such importance, that their images were stamped on coins in the 4^th - 3^rd centuries BC

 The largest structure that assisted seamen navigating in the south-eastern Mediterranean was Pharos Lighthouse, known as one of "Seven Wonders of the World". Information about its size and architecture has reached us from records of the narratives of Arabian eye-witnesses and images shown on ancient coins. The lighthouse was constructed on the island of Pharos in the year 280 BC to show the sea route to the Egyptian port-city of Alexandria. The height of lighthouse was almost 150 m, and the light was visible from the sea at distances of several tens of kilometres. The lighthouse served simultaneously as a beacon, a sentry-post and fortress, and a weather observation station. The lighthouse was built in three parts: the base was a square in which a garrison was located; the middle part was an octahedron, oriented to the eight main directions of the winds; on the cylindrical top, a bonfire (light) burned. In the interior of the lighthouse, a tank containing fresh water was always present. Bronze figures of men decorated the tower, serving also as a weather-vane. One of them raised a hand, visible at sunrise, and lowered a hand at sunset. A second figure beat out hours; a third showed, by a hand pointing seaward and by emitting a loud sound signal, when an enemy was approaching and was at a distance of distance of one night away. The lighthouse stood for 1,500 years until it was destroyed during an earthquake.

The bases of lighthouses had diverse forms: square (Pharos Lighthouse, Ostia lighthouse), hexahedral (Boulogne lighthouse), round (Abidos lighthouse).

The tops of lighthouses represented a protected or clear area, on which bonfires burned (Ostia lighthouse, Apamea lighthouse).
 
 

A long time ago, Man, having advanced along the marine coast, opened new seas, harbours, islands, etc. and wanted to represent them on charts.

By the year 490 BC Phoenician seafarers constructed charts - drawings of their routes of voyage. By 100 BC, nautical charts and peripluses - prototypes of modern pilot books - were in existence and use. The Greek word, "periplus," means: a circular route; a detour. In peripluses, distances between points on the coast were specified by the descriptions of coast, bays, harbours; places of anchorage, navigating landmarks, lighthouses, locations of lights and bonfires, places where fresh water was available, and where repairs to a vessel could be made. One of known oldest peripluses contains a description of the Mediterranean and Black Seas coasts.

The renderings and descriptions about the manned world - Oikoumene - were based on the stories of travellers and seafarers.
 
 

The Greek scientist, Eudoxus of Cnidus (ca. 408-355 BC), explained the laws of the movement of the Sun, Moon and planets for the first time.

The mathematician, Thales of Miletus (end of the 7^th - beginning of the 6^th centuries BC), opened a way for night-time navigation on the sea using the Little Bear (Ursa Minor--Little Dipper) constellation.
 
 

Hipparcus (160-125 BC) the founder of astronomy, placed a network of lines perpendicular to an equator, corresponding to degrees of a an arc of a sphere (longitude). The distance from a given point to equator was determined by a geographical latitude. These concepts have remained without change until the present time.
 
 

From the Second Millennium BC onward, the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula sailed to the coasts of India (to Malabar - country of the wooded mountains) to obtain building timber.

At the beginning of the Common Era (AD-"Anno Domini" in Latin), marine trade along the east coast of Africa was carried out almost exclusively by Arabian merchants. From the 7^th century, the Arabs, having won huge territories from Spain to India, became trade intermediaries between the countries of Europe and Asia for a 500-year period. They built numerous bases on the coasts of captured countries, from Italy to Asia Minor and from Africa to Korea. Arabian merchants travelling by overland and marine routes reached places from Gibraltar to the coast of China.

The most significant voyages of the period were the marine trips of Arabian merchant Ibn Batuta, which occurred over 28 years of his life (1325-1353 AD ). By an overland route from Tangier, he travelled to Alexandria, Egypt. Next, he went from East Africa to the Arabian Peninsula by sea. By caravan, he crossed Central Asia and by sea (again), he reached the coasts of India, Indonesia and China. This tireless man travelled one hundred and twenty thousand kilometres by land and sea. Memoirs of these trips have been collected and published in many languages.
 
 

Trips and voyages 1.Fa Hsian, 399-414 AD 2. I Tsin, 689-695 AD  3. Chzhen He, 1405-1433 AD 4. Ibn Magid, 1498 AD 5. Major marine trade routes in the 15th century, AD

Words possessing Arabic origins are widely included in modern marine and astronomical terminology, for example: Admiral - sovereign of seas; an arsenal - work court, as well as shipyard, cable, anchor, zenith, nadir; star names: Vega, Altair, Aldeboran, Betelgeuse. and so on. It is a testimonial to the significant contribution of the Arabs to development of navigation.

The Arabs were the first to have applied a triangular sail, which has appeared to be the most perfect in the manoeuvres of sailing vessels, especially in overcoming a head wind.

Keeled vessels were invented by the Arabs in the 2^nd Millennium BC Their two-masted sailing vessels made for fast and manoeuvrable sailing, especially their Naval ships of the "gurab" (raven) type, which made up the backbone of the Arab fleet in the Mediterranean.

From 7^th - 8^th centuries AD the Arabs used an astrolabe - a device for definition of latitude from the observation of heavenly bodies. Between the end of the 11^th and the beginning of the 12^th centuries, they carried (in Europe) a compass from China.

The night approaches to Arabian ports were illuminated and shown by fires from lighthouses, for which purposes, minarets of mosques, standing on near the coast were used. Near the banks, floating lighthouses were established. Such lighthouses were situated in the Persian Gulf at the confluence (place where rivers merge) of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It was described in the 11^th century narrative by a traveller to Central Asia, Nasir-i-Khusraw. The experiences of Arabian seafarers in the 15^th century were used by Portuguese and Spaniards navigators, who improved navigational tools and charts, and constructed a new type of sailing vessel - the caravel.
 
 

Development of trade navigation in countries of the East and Southeast Asia in many respects promoted the creation and perfection of sailing vessels - junks. Yet up to this new era, Chinese merchants navigated on them in only the Yellow and Japanese Seas. In the folklore of China, there is a mention of junks caught in a very strong storm being blown to the North American coast. From the 1^st - 5^th centuries A. D., the Chinese established trade connections with the inhabitants of the islands of the Malay archipelago. At the beginning of the 5^th century, Fa Hsian navigated his ship to the mouth of the Ganges River, and returned by way of Ceylon, Sumatra and Java.

In the 7^th century, the Chinese mariner I Tsin, using monsoons, has went by sea from China to India and to the islands of the Malay Archipelago. This voyage from Guanchzhou to the islands of Sumatra and Ceylon took less than 3 months to accomplish.

In the 10^th century, Chinese penetrated from the Philippines and Sunda islands to the source region of spices - Malacca . In the 10^th and 11^th centuries, China had eleven large seaports, among which the major were Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Zhangzhou, Fuzhou, Mingzhou.

The Chinese developed a way to determine the geographical latitude of a vessel by stars. Longitude, however was determined by burning of certain quantity of incense.

With the invention of compass the Chinese advanced the navigational arts of many peoples of the World.

In the beginning of the 15^th century, the Chinese seafarer Chzhen He commanded fleet of 63 ships and 27,880 men, with which he made seven long marine voyages. His large and roomy, strong vessels had a high degree of seaworthiness. They were constructed in the port cities of the Yangtse River mouth and on the marine coast. Lutsahe harbour was nearby port where the fleet lay assembled. After the voyages of Chzhen He, the presence of the peoples of the Far East were noted on the coast of East Africa and the Red Sea.
 
 

The history of development and population of the numerous islands of the tropical area of the Pacific Ocean totals many centuries, and from times of their discovery by Europeans in the middle of the 16^th century has a subject of discussions in the physical and natural sciences. This vast expanse was named Polynesia by the Europeans. The conditional borders of Polynesia are: the Hawaiian Islands (US state of Hawaii) on the north, Easter Island on the south-east, and New Zealand on the south-west.

A number of scientists have agreed that early colonisation of Polynesia began 2,000 years ago by the inhabitants of large islands of the western part of the Pacific Ocean, who sailed eastward and settled the uninhabited islands they found along the way. Other scientists, however, argue that colonisation of Polynesia was achieved by emigrants from South America. The proponent of the latter theory is the renowned Norwegian researcher and explorer, Thor Heyerdahl.

At first, Polynesians used dugouts - hollowed-out tree trunks - for sailing. However, constant dangers at sea forced them to search for a better design for their vessels. For stability, they affixed balance-weights, after which they joined boats of up to 10m in length, constructed of wood and fastened by ropes made of cocoa fibres. The Polynesians, having built these very seaworthy sailing vessels (catamarans) which reached a length of 30m and carried up to 100 people on a three to four-week voyage, were able to cover ocean distances of up to 5,000 km.
 
 

At the time of settling on a new island men, women and children were all brought to the settlement. Subsistence and provisioning were not difficult. They carried stocks of fresh water in special vessels made from coconuts, in pumpkins and bamboo trunks They made cooking fires on the boats, on a sand bedding. They transported seeds, tubers of plants, dried molluscs, flour from ripe and dried pandanus fruits, live birds, pigs and dogs.

For protection against the waves, freeboard was increased. Large vessels had three masts, sails, oars, scoops to bail out the boat and stone anchors. During storms, the bow anchors were dropped overboard, so that the vessel was always inverted by the bow to a wave. The sail was made from mats, woven from pandanus leaves, which were sewn together in the form of triangle. To strengthen the long parts of a sail, panels were stretched on wooden yards and beams.

Pliny the Elder, describing the Polynesians, talked about their V-shaped form of the sail and how vessels could move with equal speed by either bow and stern, thus the sail was possible to rearrange from bow to stern and back.
 
 

Over the centuries, the Polynesians developed their own methods of orientation on the open ocean. Training for the art of navigation began in ear.ly childhood. Future seafarers memorised a configuration in the sky of 178 stars and constellations. In addition, knowledge of the system of ocean currents and winds, direction of the flight of birds and, distribution of sea and swell was required. For training, they used special charts of currents, made from twigs and leaves. Over centuries, Polynesians have developed a whole school of navigational art - "telepa", which relies on study of the starry sky and the Ocean.

From the past until now, the peoples of Oceania have passed on tales about the ways of sailing to this or that island, from generation to generation,. For example, "... to steer slightly left, then toward the sunset in November "....

The experienced navigators felt minute variations in wind directions, currents, even to the structure of a wave. The seagoing teachings and lessons of some families were kept secret and were transmitted only from fathers to sons.

Before the beginning of 16^th century, that is, before the arrival of Europeans, Polynesians remained unique and enjoyed the full right as masters of the Pacific ocean.
 
 

I. The expansion of oceanic development by the pacific-islanders 1. Region covered by the peoples of Oceania  2. Distance covered by a vessel during a single voyage, in km  3. Prevailing winds  4. Currents  Stars used for navigation  5. Navigation to the north  6.Navigation to the south II. Probable means and the time of the settling of Oceania Methods of settling: 1. Asian 2. American

In the 8^th 9^th centuries, a major role in marine exploration was played by "northern people" - Norsemen. So-named in western Europe, these were northern Germanic tribes, living on the Jutland peninsula, on nearby islands, and on the southern and western coasts of the Scandinavian peninsula. Their main occupations were cattle-raising and maritime industry. However, even in good years there was not enough to sustain the standard of living, and consequently, many peaceful fishermen became pirates and pillagers, calling themselves "Vikings."

Later, during the 10^th and 11^th centuries, teams of Norsemen began to make piratical raids on villages along the coasts of the Baltic Sea, western Europe and even as far away as the coast of the North Africa. Using the dendritic river network of eastern Europe, Norsemen penetrated from the Baltic Sea to the eastern Mediterranean. They were first European peoples to have reached the coasts of Iceland, Greenland and North America.

These successful Norse voyages were enabled by highly seaworthy vessels, with stability, manoeuvrability, high speed, as well as endurance and the sense of adventure by their seafaring crews.

In written legends of the Norsemen (sagas) we have been given the names of newly discovered and explored lands, the names of explorers and settlers, and the dates of the voyages and explorations: Green country (Greenland) - Eric the Red in 980; Country of flat stones (Helluland); Woody country (Markland); and the Country of crab-vine (wild vine) (Vinland) - Leif Ericsson, about 1000. They created new settlements on these new lands and engaged in farming and fishing.

In songs and sagas, Norsemen passed information from generation to generation about marine currents, winds, ice, directions of birds in flight over the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean. In sagas a "solar stone" was mentioned, which assisted seafarers in locating proper courses at sea. The scientist assume that it was a crystal Iceland-Spar, a remarkably clear calcium carbonate crystal, the physical properties of which are prismatic and were used for finding the sun in bad weather. The brisk travel and commerce between Vinland and Greenland lasted for more than 200 years.

The results of archaeological excavations of a Norse settlement in the North America (Lance-o-Meadows) is convincing, and the evidence shows that Norsemen were the first Europeans to land on that continent
 
 

I.Norsemen in the 9th - 12th centuries Voyages:  1. Ottar, ca. 870-890 AD  2. Ingolf, ca. 870 AD 3. Eric the Red. 981-983 AD 4. Leif Ericsson, 1000-1001 AD 5. Possessions 6. Colonised coasts II. Russians in the 9th - 16th centuries  1. Main water trade ways 2. Explorations by the people of Novgorod and coast-dwellers  3. Portages

In the 10^th century AD, the feudal republic - "Great Novgorod" - was formed on a system of waterways from the Baltic to the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Novgorod merchants exchanged furs, skins, honey, wood for export products, jewellery, wine and exotic goods. The route for these goods to reach Byzantium was long and difficult.

The chronicler Nestor, reporting the events of 852, wrote, "There was a route from Varyags to Greece and from Greece up the Dnieper, and in the upper reaches of Dnieper, a portage up to Lovat', and at Lovat' an entrance to the great lake of Il'men'; from this lake, the river Volkhov flows and falls into the great lake Nevo, and mouth of that lake flows into the Varyazhskoye Sea.

Until the 12^th century, there was a brisk trade between Novgorod, German and Scandinavian merchants. But the hunting-grounds became depleted of game in Novgorod territory. Leaving the servitude of the feudal landowners, the Novgorod people travelled north to areas that were full of wild animals and had good fishing grounds. In this way, gradually, the people of Novgorod took possession of territories from the Kola Peninsula to the Northern Ural Mountains.

They arrived at the coasts of the White and Barents Seas by waterways and portages, settling there. They collected ivory walrus tusks and furs and skins from the animals of the forest. These courageous people were called "coast-dwellers." In searching for rich fishing and hunting grounds, they sailed to and claimed Kolguev and Vaygach Islands and the Kanin Peninsula. They also rounded the Scandinavian Peninsula, and visited the archipelago of Spitsbergen (Grumant).

The severe climate of the region caused the coast-dwellers to become excellent navigators and shipbuilders. The boards of their vessels were joined together by vista - juniper and fir flexible twigs, which swelled in water and sealed any spaces between the boards.
 
 

Overland portages had to be made because patches of ice-free water on which to sail needed to be found. To make this possible, the coast-dwellers equipped their vessels with winches, allowing them to pull their vessels out of the water, onto land or ice, and then put rollers or sledges under them. Chamois sails of coast-dwellers vessels were made of sewn-together reindeer hides, and experienced only very insignificant ice coating.

The struggle with the marine environment, scurvy and the long darkness of polar nights took the lives of many of the coast-dwellers. Silent monuments, like gravestones and crosses, stand on the coasts of Northern Russia. These are the lighthouses, the cross-beams of which are oriented in a north - south direction. On the open ocean, coast-dwellers were guided by stars and matkas (magnetic compasses), and along the coasts by crosses (lighthouses).

With fall of the Roman Empire, the achievements of ancient cartography were consigned to oblivion.

Scientists and scholars in the 6^th - 7^th centuries rejected the idea of a sphere-shaped Earth, and their writings about it were based on biblical writings and interpretations. During that time, monks in the monasteries of Europe created the artwork and maps of a world known but to them. They were subsequently called monastic maps. The most remarkable feature of these maps was their eastern orientation, that is, the top of the map represented the eastern boundary of the Mediterranean Sea (and the location of the Holy Land).

A map drawn by Cosmos Indicopleustes showed a land nearly rectangular in shape, and washed by a rectangular ocean. Near it was another land, on which people lived before the biblical Flood, and further still was Eden, from where the Nile, Tigris, Euphrates and Ganges Rivers rose.
 
 

The majority of the monastic maps represented the Earth as a kind of a flat disk, similar to a wafer. Such was the map of the World drawn by Beatus (8^th century). Eden is located in the east (on the top of the map. The centre shows Jerusalem and the general outlines of the land have a geometrical form. There are scattered perspective drawings of populated places over the whole map, and mountains and geographical texts. It is now known that there were more than 600 renderings of these monastic maps, all dating between the 8^th and 14^th centuries.

Together with monastic maps from the 9^th to 11^th centuries, we begin to see Macrobius's maps - maps which were accompanied by quotations from the works of the Roman philosopher Macrobius, who lived in the 5^th century AD. Macrobius' maps represented the inhabited Earth as it was known at the time. It was divided into five natural land regions and the Ocean, the latter shown washing the land.

With stagnation and a general decline of geographical knowledge in Christian Europe, geography became successful in Islamic countries. The Arab geographer Abu Abdallah Mohammed al-Idrisi became famous when, in 1154 AD, he created a round map of the Earth. It did not possess a cartographic grid, but its advantage was that it was a correct image of the World known to the Arabs.

The map is oriented to the South. When connected with 70 other maps, they form a complete picture of the World and present a prototype for modern cartographic publications.

A map by Fra-Mauro, drawn in 1459 AD, permits us to evaluate its perfection in the images of the outlines of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It was made from information taken from portolans. Its defect was the absence of a degree grid. The map by Fra Mauro was highly regarded by contemporaries. For his work, he received a gold medal struck in Venice.

Martin Bekhaim used information obtained from Portuguese expeditions. He engraved geographical representations of the Earth on a globe on the eve of the opening of the Age of Enlightenment.
 
 

Feudal Europe in the 15^th and 16^th centuries found it had a great requirement for raw materials, as well as gold, silver, spices and silk fabrics - all of it imported from the countries of the East: India and China. However, in the middle of the 15^th century, the overland routes through these countries became more and more dangerous because of growth of the power of the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire, and by the end of the 15^th century they were totally in control of these overland routes. Western European merchants, therefore, began to actively search for marine routes to the countries of the East.

By the end of the 15^th century, Spain and Portugal were the most capable for distant expeditions on the Ocean, since they had attained considerable successes in navigation arts and in shipbuilding.

In the 15^th century, the ancient writings about a spherical Earth resulted in Europeans forming an plan to reach India by sailing in a westerly direction, across the Atlantic Ocean, thereby bypassing the Ottoman-controlled trade routes.

In 1492, Spain sent a flotilla of three ships under the command of Christopher Columbus to find a route to India by sailing westward, across the Atlantic Ocean. The vessels first sailed south to the latitude of the Canary Islands and, there, driven by trade winds, crossed the Atlantic Ocean. Reaching what are now known as the islands of the Bahamas, Columbus mistakenly took them for India, and islands of Cuba and Haiti for the least valuable parts of China.

As a result of Columbus' 3 voyages, the Lesser Antilles, the islands Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and Trinidad were discovered. Christopher Columbus laid a foundation for the exploration of a new continent, subsequently called, "America." Upon his return to Spain, it was announced that he had found a western route to the "Indies".

The King and Queen of Spain see the departure of Columbus from Spain. A part of an engraving

A chart of Hispaсola (coast of Cuba), drawn by Columbus in 1492
 
 

Ships of the 15^th - 16^th centuries (From an engraving)

After the discovery of "Western India" by the Spanish fleet of Columbus, the Portuguese government hastened to obtain the rights to "East India". An expedition for this purpose was equipped, and led by a young Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Gama.

Departing from Lisbon, his vessels sailed southward on the eastern Atlantic Ocean, rounding the southern tip of Africa. From the East African port of Malindi, vessels were navigated by the Arab pilot, Ahmad-ibn-Majid, to the coast of India.

Using their knowledge of the monsoons, the expedition reached the port of Calcutta. In this way, a new sea-route from Europe to India was discovered. After the development of the new routes, the Portuguese exercised control over all of the islands of "East India". From that time, the World trade in spices went under the control of the Portuguese.

In 1517, the Portuguese navigator, Fernando Magellan, told his King of his plan to sail to China and India. With the knowledge gained on the exploratory voyages of Columbus, he decided to sail further to the west, and to eventually reach the Spice Islands of the East.

In the autumn 1519, Magellan's fleet departed from the mouth of Guadalquivir River. There were five sailing vessels in the fleet: "Trinidad", "San Antonio", "Conception", "Victoria" and "Santiago", aboard which there were a total of 265-men. Magellan's fleet sailed to the Canary Islands and then across the Atlantic Ocean to the coast of South America. Travelling south along its coast, Magellan found a strait through which he crossed into the Pacific Ocean, and which now bears his name. After another three-months in the Pacific Ocean (so named by Magellan), the expedition experienced incredible suffering. Starvation, scurvy and a shortage of fresh water took the lives of many of the crew.

In western part of the Pacific Ocean, while visiting the Philippines Islands, a servant of Magellan began talking with the inhabitants of one of the islands, and they were able to understand each other. In this unforgettable moment, Magellan decided that his "purpose is achieved - the Earth is round, for the man has rounded it"

The entire voyage was accompanied by the deaths of crew members. In addition, Magellan was killed in a battle with aborigines on the island of Mactan in 1521, after which the command of the expedition was assumed by the second-in-command, Captain Juan-Sebastian Del-Cano. Out of the five vessels and 265 seamen that left Spain, only 18 men, on the single vessel "Victoria," returned after three years of sailing. The difficult and tragic events of the expedition were recorded by Antonio Pifagetta, one of the participants.

By sailing around the world, the Magellan expedition proved that the Earth is spherical. They determined the southernmost point of the South American continent, discovered a passage route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and demonstrated the accessibility of a single World Ocean.

The second around-the-world expedition was made by the notorious pirate, Sir Francis Drake between 1577-1580. He discovered for England and the Netherlands, routes at that time known only to Spain and Portugal.

By the end of the 16^th - beginning of the 17^th centuries, the Spaniards and Portuguese had found marine routes to India and China, and western European merchants attempted to find a route through northern seas to the East. They believed that two routes existed: a Northwest Passage and a Northeast Passage. English, French and Dutch explorers attempted to find a Northwest Passage to the Pacific Ocean though the islands of North America in what is now known as the Canadian Arctic archipelago.

The most successful expeditions were the cruises of Englishmen, Frobisher in 1576-1578, Davis in 1585-1587, Hudson in 1607-1610, Baffin and Bylot in 1616 and James and Fox in 1631. They searched for passes between the islands of the north-eastern point of America and the west coast of Greenland. Now, bays, straits, islands and peninsulas are named for them.

The English navigator, Willoughby, commanding an expedition of three vessels, departed in 1553 in search of a Northeast Passage to China. One of vessels, under command of R. Chancellor, reached the mouth of the northern Dvina. In March, 1554, Chancellor visited Moscow, where he was received by Tsar Ivan IV, and received a letter of marque for the right of free trade with the Moscow state.

Explorations for routes to India and China in a north-east direction were then attempted by the Englishman, Barrow, in 1556. He reached the islands of Novaya Zemlya, but encountered ice and returned to England. Later, a cape at the northernmost point of the Alaskan peninsula was named for him: "Point Barrow."

Among the Dutch expeditions, the most significant were the expeditions of Willem Barents. From 1594 to 1597, he reached northern tip of Novaya Zemlya, and passed into the Kara Sea. The expedition also discovered Bear island, and surveyed a part of the Spitsbergen archipelago. A chart of the coasts and islands of northern part of Europe was made by Barents.
 
 

In the 16^th 17^th centuries, Russian explorers made significant contributions to research and the development of the northern and far-eastern seas. By this time, coast-dwellers had settled along the coasts of the White and Barents seas, and the city - port of Arkhangel'sk was established at the mouth of the northern Dvina River,.

The coast-dwellers - hunters and Cossacks travelling to the north by Siberian rivers - reached the coasts of the Arctic Ocean. Here they established settlements - winter quarters - which become the starting points for further progress toward the east.

The ways in the Arctic were difficult: In 1610, the hunter, Kurochkin, having sailed down the Yenisey River, travelled by sea to the Taymir Peninsula. Cossacks Perfil'ev and Rebrov, in 1633, 1635, 1636 and 1638, sailed down the Lena River until they reached the Arctic Ocean, and then travelled eastward to the Yana and Indigirka River mouths. In 1646, pilot Ivan Ignat'ev sailed from the mouth of the Kolyma River into the East Siberian Sea, and then continued eastward, beginning to survey the north-eastern margins of the Russian state. In 1647, Cossack leader Vasiliy Bugor travelled down the Lena River, passing first into the Laptev Sea and then into the East Siberian Sea to the Kolyma River.

Simultaneous with development of the North, Russians advanced toward the East: The party of Ivan Moskvitin departed from Yakutsk for the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk and surveyed the coast; Cossack Vasiliy Poyarkov reached the Sea of Okhotsk via the Amur River and was the first European to see Sakhalin Island; Cossack leader Vladimir Atlasov departed from Anadyrskiy Ostrog, getting first to Penzhinskaya Bay and then, travelling along the east coast, reached the southern point of Kamchatka. He described all of the lands he had encountered.

The development of routes in northern and eastern seas was accompanied by incredible hardships, severe illnesses, ship-wrecks and deaths of crews. The most significant development of north-eastern exploration was the cruise of Semen Dezhnev. In 1648, on seven ketches with several fellow-explorers, he departed from Niznekamchatsk (Lower Kamchatka) and proceeded by sea in an easterly direction. Experiencing great difficulties, and having lost a large part of his crew due to hazardous conditions, Dezhnev reached the easternmost point of Asia and determined, without a doubt, the existence of a strait between the Asian and North American continents. M.V. Lomonosov wrote, regarding the explorations of Dezhnev, "By this voyage the maritime passage from the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean is proven without a doubt." The name of Dezhnev has been immortalised by the geographical naming of a cape, a bay and a ridge. Thereafter, voyages of Russian explorers supplied geographers with extensive material for drawing new charts and writing descriptions of the coasts, straits and islands.
 
 

The great geographical explorations during the Enlightenment period changed the ideas of scientists about the Earth. There was then an urgent need to put newly-discovered lands on charts.

The first attempt to connect newly-discovered lands into a continent was made in 1512 by the Polish cartographer, Jan Stobnichka. In 1515, Leonardo da Vinci depicted South America on a discovery map of the world and gave his rendition of the North American continent (Florida).

During the 16^th century, European geographers discussed the possibility of the existence of a huge continent in southern latitudes, and determined that it should be called, "Terra Incognita Australis". In 1524 the German mathematician, I. Schooner, published a chart, where an outline of this southern continent were shown.

In 1527, Robert Torn drew a map of the World, in which he used all known information regarding the continents and oceans.

In the second half of the 16^th century European cartographers paid great attention to the creation of a series of charts, issued in large scale volumes - atlases, which could give the reader a uniform picture of the World.

The "Theatre of the World" atlas, published in 1570 by Flemish cartographer A. Ortelius, consisted of 53 maps and was accompanied by a description of all known parts of the World. In 1579 Ortelius, for the first time, had included three historical maps in his atlas.

A great cartographic product of this epoch was the atlas by Gerard Mercator, issued in 1569. Sheets of this atlas, connected in a certain order, showed a good overview of the World. The area of the Arctic Ocean was shown as a kind of land mass, divided by narrow straits. The projection of this map of the World appeared very convenient for navigational purposes at the time, and still finds wide use and acceptance today.
 
 

Works of Mercator and Ortelius prompted other cartographers to create a series of atlases for the purpose of navigating on the seas and oceans. On charts in these atlases, wind roses and portolan lines are shown, and they also contain gazetteers of geographical place names. The atlases of Waghenaer, Hondius - a student of Mercator, and Blaeu are the best known of these maritime atlases.

In the creation of these atlases, diverse art forms were incorporated, however the accuracy of the charts was minimal.
 
 

During the 16^th century, great attention was given to the drawing of manuscript charts. They were produced on canvas, and included descriptions received from "well-informed" travellers, who described the lands of Siberia and the Far East.

These items of information were generalised and used by S.U. Remesov in the writing of his manuscript, "Drawn book of Siberia", in 1700. His works - manuscript charts, were the earliest known charts of the western part of Alaska and the Chukchi and Kamchatka Peninsulas.

Manuscript charts of the White, Barents, Caspian and Azov Seas were made later, but until the 18^th century, most navigators used portolans to sail on the seas.

At the beginning of the 18^th century, manuscript charts were replaced by marine navigation atlases. One of the first such atlases was the atlas of the Varyazhskoe (Baltic) Sea, issued in 1714.
 
 

Increased development of marine trade by the countries of Europe between the 12^th and 19^th centuries created the necessity of building lighthouses on maritime coasts. Sometimes, lighthouses appeared as domes of coastal cathedrals, and on these were established visible landmarks for navigators. Over centuries it has become evident to navigators that lights of very high lighthouses are poorly seen, this because the high humidity of marine air lowers the transparency of the atmosphere by a considerable amount. Thus, navigators refused to rely on large structures.

The builders of lighthouses tried to give each lighthouse an original architectural design, some decorated by sculptures, so that navigators could easy distinguish them from each other.

Originally, lighthouses were built of sturdy wood. However, the wooden structures frequently did not bear up to the forces of the stormy ocean and were often destroyed and washed away by waves. Subsequently, the builders began to construct lighthouses of brick and granite.
 
 

In the second half of the 19^th century, a few lighthouse towers in France were constructed of metals. One such lighthouse was erected in La Manche (English Channel) on a submerged rock. This lighthouse was described by Victor Hugo in his novel, "Workers of the Sea".

Large stocks of a fuel were required to maintenance lights. These fuels were, for a long time, wood, and later, coal and resins. With development of the whaling and seal hunting industry, lighthouses began to burn the rendered fats of marine mammals. Later, from the middle of 19^th century - petroleum, kerosene and acetylene were used for light-maintaining fuels.

The lighting-engineering equipment of lighthouses gradually improved. In the 18^th century, lamps with double the intensity were invented. This improvement was due to the use of mirrors to intensify the light. Once electricity was brought to lighthouses (in 1861) , light and sound signals became more powerful and reliable. By 1883, of the 5,000 lighthouses along the coasts of the oceans, 14 had incandescent electric lighting equipment. Some of these lighthouses were in Russia.
 
 

It is difficult to imagine how ocean navigation could take place without nautical instruments and charts. Obviously, seafarers needed such equipment for measuring depths, distances, time, course and speed of a vessel, which would make it possible for a vessel to determine its geographic position on the Ocean.

The oldest of marine instruments is considered to be a pole and a simple cord, evenly divided (marked) along its length a cord and a weight on one end. At a certain measured depth, it was judged a certain distance from a coast.

The difficult problem of choosing the course along which a vessel was to travel was resolved from the approximately 10^th century by the invention of a compass - like device with a magnetic pointer, oriented toward the North. The determination of time was made by a sand hourglass, which was used almost to the beginning of the 18^th century.
 
 

With development of a sailing merchant fleet, the speed of the ship was measured by a "log." It was a coil lowered overboard by a rope, marked by knots spaced at equal distances. The speed of a vessel was determined by the number of knots left on the coil after a certain time, as measured by an hour-glass (clipsidre). Eventually, it became a tradition to express the speed of a vessel in knots, i.e., the distance in nautical miles a vessel was able to travel in one hour. A nautical mile is equal to the length of one arc-minute on a global meridian.

In the 15^th century, readings from the log and compass allowed a navigator to determine a geographic position, i.e., to calculate the distance at which a ship might be located from a known, fixed point on land, if proceeding along a known bearing.

The Portuguese school of navigation developed the means to define the position of a vessel by observing heavenly bodies. The manner of defining this position in the 15^th century was by creating and using gauges to measure angles. The first of these position-fixing systems were a cross-staff, a quadrant and an astrolabe. In the 16^th - 17^th centuries, the sextant was devised, which had an optical view-finder and a scale divided into degrees to more accurately measure the bearing and altitude of a star, planet or the Sun. With some small improvements, the design of the sextant is still in use by many seamen today.
 
 

One of the greatest achievements of practical navigation came in the middle of the 17th century, when English astronomers created methodology to determine longitude on the open ocean. One of these methods was based on the measurement of the angles between directions of the Moon and Sun (method of lunar distances). The other is the time method.

For use in navigating by the first method, English astronomers have regularly issued a special "Nautical Astronomical Almanac" since 1717, which has and greatly assisted in making calculations.

The basis of the hour method is a true knowledge of the difference over time between the conditional (zero) meridian and meridian of the observer in the ocean.

The English inventor, Harrison, produced the chronometer - a precisely accurate clock - in the late 18^th century, and with it, determination of longitude by time differences came to be calculated with great accuracy.

By the second half of the 18^th century, navigators had acquired the opportunity to confidently determine the location of a vessel on the open ocean.

In the 17^th and 18^th centuries, an interest arose in the development of natural and exact sciences with regard to the ocean.

At the end of the 17^th century, the first analyses of chemical structure of the water were executed by English physicist. R. Boyle. At the end of the 18^th century, the French physicist, A. Lavoissier conducted a detailed analysis of the structure of sea water. Almost simultaneously with Boyle, E. Halley investigated the reasons for the occurrence of the "trade winds." At the beginning of the 18^th century, the great physicist, Sir Isaac Newton, explained the phenomenon of ocean tides by gravitational attraction of the Sun and the Moon.

In 1770, the American scientist and statesman Benj. Franklin described and made the first chart of a powerful current in Atlantic: The Gulf Stream.

In the middle of the 18^th century, the great Russian scientist, Mikhail V. Lomonosov, stated his theories on an origin for continents and oceans. In his work, "The First Edition for Northern Navigation to the East by the Siberian Ocean," Lomonosov paid considerable attention to the necessity for research in the Arctic Ocean and proposed a program of scientific expeditions for this purpose. He compiled and produced one of the first charts of the Arctic Ocean. In 1724, under the patronage of Tsar Peter the Great, a large expedition sailed off to study the coasts of north-east Asia, North America and the waters of the Pacific Ocean.

In August of 1728, an expedition under command of Vitius Bering and A. Chirikov sailed from the Pacific Ocean into the Chukchi Sea and proved the existence of a strait between Asia and America. It was later named after Bering. On the Second Kamchatka Expedition, Bering and Chirikov also surveyed the west coast of the North America, and explored islands in the Aleutian Islands chain. The expedition consisted of marine and overland groups. Groups led by Murav'ev, Ovtsin, Minin, Sterlegov, Pronchishchev, Laptev and Chelyuskin investigated and described the coasts of the Arctic Ocean. Other groups were made up of scientists from the Russian Academy. G. Steller and G. Miller searched for routes to Japan and North America. Detailed and exact surveys of the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula were produced by S. Krashennikov. His work was translated into four European languages and became a model for several generations of geographers.
 
 

1.. St. Gavriil, 1728. V. Bering, A. Chirikov 2.. St. Petr, 1741. V. Bering 3. St. Pavel, 1741. A. Chirikov 4. Location of the of the shipwreck St. Petr, 5.11.1741

In the second half of the 18^th century, England and France conducted large oceanic expeditions, the reason for which was mapping and exploring the islands and coasts of the oceans.

French navigator, L. Bougainville made a round-the-world navigation, the results of which are described in the book "Around the World Voyage aboard the Frigate "Budes" and transport "Etual" in the years 1766-69."

A great contribution to the study of the Pacific Ocean was advanced by the English navigator James Cook. Cook, under orders of British Admiralty, made three around the world expeditions with the ships, "Endeavour" and "Resolution" between 1768-1779. The vessels crossed the Equator six times. Cook was the first of the early mariners to have reached the latitude of the Antarctic Circle and reached the southern latitude record (71°10'S.) on that cruise. During his second circumnavigation Cook proved the fallacy of a wide-ranging opinion by geographers denying the existence of a huge ice continent, balancing the Earth in southern latitudes. At the same time, he did not reject the assumption of the existence of land around the South Pole Scientists of various scientific disciplines participated on Cook's expeditions.

Between 1785-1788, French seafarer J. la Perouse headed a research expedition to the Pacific ocean on frigates "Boussol" and "Astrolabe". He crossed the Pacific ocean from the Kamchatka peninsula to Australia. One of results of his expedition was the discovery of a strait between islands of Sakhalin and Hokkaido, which now bears his name.

From 1791-1795, an earlier participant of the Cook expedition, G. Vancouver, conducted an extensive survey of the Pacific coast of North America from 60° southward to 30°N.

Many islands, straits, capes and other geographical features of the World ocean are named after these courageous seafarers and their fellow-travellers.
 
 

"Nadezhda", 1803-1806, I.F. Krusenstern, Yu.F. Lisyanskiy "Ryurik", 1815 - 1818, O.E. Kotzebue "Kamchatka", 1817 - 1819, V.M. Golovnin  "Vostok", "Mirny", 1819 - 1821, F.F. Bellingshausen, M.P. Lazarev "Predpriyatie", 1823 - 1826. O.E. Kotzebue "Senyavin", 1826 - 1829, F.P. Litke "Pallada", 1852 - 1854. I.S. Unkovskiy

The appearance of Russia on the north-western coasts of the Pacific Ocean in the 18^th century, the development of extensive lands of Russian America, the need to protect and maintain economic communications with her new possessions - all these circumstances prompted Russia to organise and realise marine expeditions.

On coasts of North America at this time, there were the port cities Novoarkhangel'sk and Sitka. In 1799 the Russian - American company was formed, the activities of which brought great wealth. Its organiser, G.I. Shelikhov, in many respects promoted research efforts in the newly-settled lands.

The idea of sending ships to the Far East from Kronstadt by a southern marine route was a dream possessed by the Russian people at the same time as the preparation of the Second Kamchatka Expedition. However, these dreams were not realised until 1803, when the first Russian round-the-world expedition, under command of captain-lieutenants I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyanskiy got underway. During this expedition (1803-1806), extensive scientific investigations were conducted for the first time in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. For example, temperature and depths in the tropical areas of the Pacific Ocean were measured for the first time

After returning from his round-the-world voyage, I.F. Krusenstern published a work in three volumes: "An Around-the-World Voyage between 1803 and 1806 on the Ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva"." This work was greatly received and recognised.. Later, at of the beginning of the 19th century. Krusenstern published "The Atlas of the Southern Ocean" with a detailed description of Oceania The atlas then and now proves to be of great value for the experts engaging in the history of Oceania.

In subsequent years, around-the-world voyages of Russian ships became more and more frequent. Between 1817-1819, V.M. Golovnin made an circumnavigation, stopping at Kamchatka and Russian America. He described the voyage in his book, "Travels around the world on the sloop "Kamchatka"."

Two around the world voyages were made by O.E. Kotzebue between 1815-1818 and 1823-1826. An outcome of these voyages was the discovery of a number of atolls, islands, and gulfs in the Pacific Ocean, and a huge amount scientific, ethnographic and geographical material was collected and assembled.

Russian physicist E. Lenz took part in the expedition, conducting studies about the thermal history of the ocean waters. He came to the correct conclusion that the deep waters of the World Ocean are formed in the polar areas.

The greatest geographical discovery of the time was made by the expedition of F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev. Between 1819-1821, they arrived at the previously unknown Antarctic continent on the sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny". For the first time, vessels had circumnavigated the icy continent. One of the participants of expedition was the artist, P.N. Mikhailov, who made sketches of coasts of the continent and adjacent islands. Information about the sizes of Antarctic icebergs was assembled for the first time, and biological collections were established as well. The outcome of the first Russian Antarctic Expedition was described by Bellingshausen in the book "Two research cruises in Southern Icy Ocean and around-the world navigation accomplished on sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny".

The future president of the Russian geographical society F.P. Litke participated in round-the-world voyages. Between 1827-1829 he was a commander of the sloop "Senyavin", and explored a number of islands of the tropical area of the Pacific Ocean. Later he created an atlas containing charts of these islands.

Russian around the world voyages of the first half of 19^th century were a bright page in the history of the Russian fleet and advanced broad research in the World Ocean in subsequent years.
 
 

England 1. "Beagle, 1831-1838 2. "Lightning". 1868 3. "Challenger". 1872-1876 Belgium 4. "Belgica", 1897-1899 Germany 5. “National”, 1889 Norway 6. "Fram", 1893-1896 Russia 7. "Vityaz'", 1886-1889 USA 8. "Tuscarora", 1874-1875 9. First marine scientific stations and years of their founding

The first significant break in resolving the Ocean's secrets came about by the research of the young English scientist, Charles Darwin, who made an around-the-world voyage aboard the vessel "HMS Beagle," between 1831-1836. The results of his observations, were assembled and became the basis of his widely known book, "The Origin of the Species", published in 1859. The book awakened the scientific world to an interest in the Oceans and especially about its inhabitants. As an outcome of Darwin's observations, great expeditions to the northern part of Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea were organised on the sailing vessels "Lightning" and "Porcupine".
 
 

 At this time, there were growing requirements for information about the winds, currents and ocean depths for increasing numbers of sailing fleets. Some of the greater stimuli for this knowledge grew out of the need to connect trans-Atlantic telegraph cables between the continents on the sea floor. Another requirement was to aid the great hunting fleets in their search for whales.

In 1855, the first text about ocean currents and winds was written by M.F. Maury, a lieutenant in the American Navy, entitled, "The Physical Geography of the Seas." It contained charts and information which proved to be of great help to captains of commercial and whaling vessels.
 
 

 The birth and the subsequent development of a new science - oceanography - is accepted to have come into being after the four-year, around-the-world expedition aboard the English sailing barquentine, "Challenger," from 1872 to 1876. During Challenger's voyage under the direction of the distinguished scientists, J. Murray and C. Thompson, research about the physics, chemistry, geology and biology of the Ocean were carried out by new equipment, specially designed for these purposes. The published results of the expedition were so impressive, that a number of countries in the last quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century began organising lengthy scientific expeditions on the oceans.

 Between 1886 and 1889, the famous Russian expedition aboard the sailing barquentine, "Vityaz," under the direction of the great scientist, Admiral S.O. Makarov, studied the waters of the North Pacific Ocean in great detail. Their observations were published in a series called "Vityaz' and the Pacific Ocean".

 Other countries also carried out ocean scientific expeditions, for example, the American biologist A. Agassiz carried out studies aboard the vessel, "Albatross," and studies were likewise carried out aboard the German vessels, "National", "Planet", "Gauss” and "Valdivia"; on other American vessels, "Blake” and "Tuscarora"; and on the Norwegian vessel, "Michael Sars" (to name but a few), all promoting and advancing the new Ocean sciences.

A revival of interest in the polar waters of the Ocean began about the same time. The drift of the Norwegian vessel "Fram," frozen in the pack ice of the Arctic Ocean, was carried out by the famous scientist and polar explorer, F. Nansen. This expedition gave us the first valuable data about polar waters, depths in the Arctic Ocean and circulation of the ice pack. During the three-year expedition, an extensive biological collection was also assembled.

In 1899. S.O. Makarov constructed the first powered ice breaker, "Ermak", on which he attempted to reach the North Pole. In 1897-1899, scientists from several different countries aboard the Belgian research vessel, "Belgica," accomplished the first wintering-over in the ice of Antarctic Region.

In Russia, France, the USA and in other countries, the organisation of the first scientific establishments for research of the seas and oceans were begun. Marine biological research stations were established in Sevastopol in 1872 and on the Murmansk coast in 1881.

Collections of biological and geological samples from depths of the World Ocean during 19th century expeditions caused one of the founders of modern Oceanography, Prince Albert I of Monaco, to propose the creation of a General Bathymetric Chart of Oceans (GEBCO) at the VII International Geographical Congress in 1899. The first issue of this series of charts, at a scale of 1:10,000,000 on 24 sheets, was printed and distributed in 1903. It has been subsequently been updated and periodically reissued, the last time between 1978-1982. These charts are extremely important for learning about the Ocean. With the 1917 publication of his book, "Oceanography," Yu. M. Shokal'skiy, one of the founders of the new science of the Ocean, compiled all of the theoretical and observed information known about the World Ocean up until that time.
 
 

The broad use of electronic echosounders on research vessels and radio-location of ships at sea in the 1920-1930 time period permitted the acquisition of a great amount of information about bottom depths and relief. A vast underwater terrain, containing mountains, ridges, plains and deep canyons, more spectacular than those above the sea, was now unveiled to researchers for the first time.

During this period, the importance of learning about the seas and oceans has become obvious to many countries. In 1921, PLAVMORNIN - a floating marine institute, was created in Soviet Russia. Between 1921 and 1924, the research ship, "Persey" made numerous voyages of exploration in the Arctic Ocean.

"Persey" became the a cradle of domestic oceanography. Aboard her, a group of brilliant scientists, among them, N.N. Zubov, M.V. Klenova, S.V. Bruevich, V.S. Samoilenko and L.A. Zenkevich, developed their skills and expertise in Oceanography.
 
 

 Between 1925 and 1927, German scientists aboard the research vessel, "Meteor," investigated the Atlantic Ocean in great detail. Measurements of surface and deep water movements were collected, and sea floor relief measurements revealed significant variations in depth for the first time.

At the beginning of the 1930s, intensive efforts to master the Northern Sea Route began, with the help of ice-breaking vessels "Sibiryakov", "Georgiy Sedov", "Fedor Litke" and others.

In 1937 drifting ice stations were established on the polar sea ice-pack by a team of four Soviet Scientists, I.D. Papanin, E.T. Krenkel', P.P. Shirshov and E.K. Fedorov, who were the first to do long-term, scientific research on the frozen Arctic Ocean.

After the end of the Second World War, exploration of the Oceans increased immeasurably. It became very obvious that without a deep knowledge of the nature of the Ocean, it would be impossible to utilise its great resources, and to make weather forecasts. Research of the physics, chemistry, geology and biology of the Ocean were given a high priority in the first years after World War II. Around-the-world oceanographic expeditions by the Danish research vessel, "Galathea," and the Swedish research vessel, "Albatross," were completed in the tradition of the "Challenger".

 At the end of the 1940s, a network of weather observation stations aboard ships was established in the North Atlantic Ocean for the maintenance and safety of ship and aircraft navigation. Until recently, these floating meteorological stations continuously transmitter observations about the weather and sea-state conditions in the Ocean.

At the beginning of the 1950s, the French oceanographer, J. Y. Cousteau, aboard his research vessel "Calypso," used newly developed underwater engineering techniques to show the rich diversity of the Ocean. Films and books produced and written by Cousteau have entertained many people.

Between the 1940-70s, some of the greatest research cruises in the history of Ocean Science were conducted by Soviet scientists aboard the famous research vessels, "Vityaz'" and "Mikhail Lomonosov", and by American scientists on the research vessels "Chain", "Atlantis", "Vema", "Eltanin". From the materials and information collected on these and other expeditions, numerous books and papers were written, and charts and atlases were created. Our knowledge of the Ocean has been greatly increased by the contributions of eminent Soviet and foreign scientists such as, V.G. Bogorov, V.V. Shuleykin, V.G. Kort, P.L. Bezrukov, R. Revelle, B. Heezen, H. Sverdrup, H. Stommel and others.

 In the USSR, extensive investigations of the Earth's magnetic field were conducted by Soviet scientists beginning at the end of the 1950s, on a specially constructed non-magnetic vessel - the schooner "Zarya".

Significant developments in electronics engineering, automation and robotics, and telemechanics raised levels of scientific research to new heights during those three decades.

 Beginning in the 1960s, an effective means of learning about the Ocean came from underwater vehicles--submersibles (scientific submarines) and from instruments on artificial satellites in Space. A new direction of shipbuilding developed - the construction of specially-designed ships for Ocean study. Ships of Science: - "Akademik Kurchatov", "Akademik Vernadskiy", "Atlantis II" and others were built and used exclusively for Oceanography.
 
 

Construction of the large nuclear ice breakers, "Lenin", "Arktika" and "Siber" greatly aided in the opening and maintenance of the Northern Sea Route. On August 17, 1977, one of these nuclear icebreakers, "Arktika," reached the North Pole by overcoming 1,200 miles of a solid cover of thick, multi-year ice. This was the first time a surface vessel had reached the North Pole.

As a result of great efforts by scientists, seamen and engineers, a new face of the Ocean has been opened to us - a face of a very complex, interconnected World. In it are natural laws, many of which are known, and present and future research may discover others.
 
 

1. International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE), 1959-1965 (Australia England, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Portugal, USSR, USA. France, FRG, UAR, Japan)

2. Study of the Equatorial Atlantic (EQUALANT), 1963-1964 (Argentina, Brazil, Cote-d'Ivore, Ghana, Spain, Congo, Nigeria, USSR, USA)

3. Multi-disciplinary oceanographic survey of the Northwest Atlantic (NORWESTLANT),1963 (England, Denmark Iceland, Canada, Norway, USSR, USA. France, FRG)

4. Co-operative Study of the Kuroshio (CSK), 1965 1970 (England. Indonesia, USSR, USA, Thailand. Taiwan, Philippines, Japan)

5. Study of the Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean (EASTROPAC), 1966-1970 (Peru, USA, Ecuador)

6. Caribbean Sea and adjacent regions (CICAR). 1968-1970 (England. Venezuela, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, the Netherlands, USSR, USA)

7. Weddell Sea Expedition, 1968-1970 (Argentina, USA)

8. Study of the Western Mediterranean Sea (MEDOC), 1969-1970 (England, Italy, USA. France)

9. Study of the Western Pacific Ocean (WESTPAC), 1979-1990 (Australia, Canada, China, USSR, USA, Philippines, France, Japan)

1. Joint Soviet-American study of synoptic eddies (POLYMODE)

2. Study of the South-eastern Pacific Ocean ("El Niсo") (Colombia, Peru, USA, Chile, Ecuador)

3. Study of the Geochemistry in Sections of the Ocean (GEOSECS) (Great Britain, India, Italy, Canada, USA, France, FRG, Japan)

4. Study of the Earth's atmosphere (Brazil. Great Britain, Venezuela, the Netherlands, Canada, Mexico. Portugal, USSR, USA, France, FRG)

5. Study of the Mid-Atlantic ridge (FAMOUS) (Great Britain, Iceland, Canada, Portugal, USA, France)

6. Upwelling research program (Great Britain, Spain, Canada, Mexico, USSR, USA, France, FRG, Japan)

7. World Data Centres

8.National data centres

9. Main scientific establishments for Ocean studies

 After the middle of the 20^th century, joint Ocean research programmes by scientists of various countries became broader in scope. The Ocean became a venue of co-operation where international, preplanned programs and expeditions were realised.

The results of research programmes carried out during the First and Second International Polar Years (1882 and 1932-1933), showed great the effectiveness of joint efforts by scientists of different nations.

In 1902 the International Council on Exploration of the Sea (ICES) was created as the first international organisation co-ordinating oceanographic activities of several European countries. These activities were mainly in the field of exploration of biological resources of the Ocean.

The first multi-disciplinary Ocean programs were conducted between 1957 and 1959 during International Geophysical Year (IGY). Under unified programs and techniques, 67 nations took part and made observations in the World Ocean, which was one of its great achievements. As a result of these studies, IGY data sets were so large that the creation of World Data Centres in Moscow and Washington was necessary. Additionally, national data centres were created for separate sections of Ocean sciences - geophysics, biology, etc. Results of the research were systematically processed and became the property of the World-wide scientific community.

The combined efforts of scientists from different nations in learning about the World Ocean reside with a number of international organisations. The most well-known among these are the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), which is a part of UNESCO - the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR). In many respects, from the end of the 1950s onward, these organisations made possible the realisation of a great number of large international expeditions in the World Ocean.

Between 1959 and 1965, the International Indian Ocean Expedition functioned with the participation of 23 countries, whose vessels made 123 scientific voyages. The outcome of this research programme was that it was so successful, it was followed by other large-scale programmes, e.g., the joint research in the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean project from 1962 to 1964 ("EQualant") and the co-operative research on the Kuroshio Current and adjacent areas programme ("CSK"). These advances in international co-operation generated (in 1979) a new project in the western Pacific Ocean (WESTPAC).

Large joint research projects were carried out between 1960 and 1970 in the Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas. The World Meteorological Organisation of the United Nations was an active participant in Ocean research. In 1974-1979: it organised the important observations made during the Program of Investigation of Global Atmospheric Processes (PIGAP). The International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) was in effect from 1970 to 1980. Thirty-five countries participated, working on such complex problems as air-sea interaction, determination of the age of ocean deposits, physics and chemistry of sea water and other studies. In the 1990s, two large-scale projects - WOCE (World Ocean Circulation Experiment) and TOGA were carried out. Their investigations are a result of a global system of high-precision measurements of surface-water temperatures, the winds above them, and the height of the Ocean, all with the use of oceanographic satellites and research vessels.

The collected observations from these and other such programs have resulted in the publication of professional reports, books, atlases and charts. The outcome of the research and the initiation of future activities will be discussed and planned at international conferences, congresses and symposia. Their final aim is to be able to forecast global changes in climate, which affects the living conditions of the population of all of the continents.