England 1. "Beagle, 1831-1838 2. "Lightning". 1868 3. "Challenger". 1872-1876 Belgium 4. "Belgica", 1897-1899 Germany 5. “National”, 1889 Norway 6. "Fram", 1893-1896 Russia 7. "Vityaz'", 1886-1889 USA 8. "Tuscarora", 1874-1875 9. First marine scientific stations and years of their founding

The first significant break in resolving the Ocean's secrets came about by the research of the young English scientist, Charles Darwin, who made an around-the-world voyage aboard the vessel "HMS Beagle," between 1831-1836. The results of his observations, were assembled and became the basis of his widely known book, "The Origin of the Species", published in 1859. The book awakened the scientific world to an interest in the Oceans and especially about its inhabitants. As an outcome of Darwin's observations, great expeditions to the northern part of Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea were organised on the sailing vessels "Lightning" and "Porcupine".
 
 

 At this time, there were growing requirements for information about the winds, currents and ocean depths for increasing numbers of sailing fleets. Some of the greater stimuli for this knowledge grew out of the need to connect trans-Atlantic telegraph cables between the continents on the sea floor. Another requirement was to aid the great hunting fleets in their search for whales.

In 1855, the first text about ocean currents and winds was written by M.F. Maury, a lieutenant in the American Navy, entitled, "The Physical Geography of the Seas." It contained charts and information which proved to be of great help to captains of commercial and whaling vessels.
 
 

 The birth and the subsequent development of a new science - oceanography - is accepted to have come into being after the four-year, around-the-world expedition aboard the English sailing barquentine, "Challenger," from 1872 to 1876. During Challenger's voyage under the direction of the distinguished scientists, J. Murray and C. Thompson, research about the physics, chemistry, geology and biology of the Ocean were carried out by new equipment, specially designed for these purposes. The published results of the expedition were so impressive, that a number of countries in the last quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century began organising lengthy scientific expeditions on the oceans.

 Between 1886 and 1889, the famous Russian expedition aboard the sailing barquentine, "Vityaz," under the direction of the great scientist, Admiral S.O. Makarov, studied the waters of the North Pacific Ocean in great detail. Their observations were published in a series called "Vityaz' and the Pacific Ocean".
 
 

 Other countries also carried out ocean scientific expeditions, for example, the American biologist A. Agassiz carried out studies aboard the vessel, "Albatross," and studies were likewise carried out aboard the German vessels, "National", "Planet", "Gauss” and "Valdivia"; on other American vessels, "Blake” and "Tuscarora"; and on the Norwegian vessel, "Michael Sars" (to name but a few), all promoting and advancing the new Ocean sciences.

A revival of interest in the polar waters of the Ocean began about the same time. The drift of the Norwegian vessel "Fram," frozen in the pack ice of the Arctic Ocean, was carried out by the famous scientist and polar explorer, F. Nansen. This expedition gave us the first valuable data about polar waters, depths in the Arctic Ocean and circulation of the ice pack. During the three-year expedition, an extensive biological collection was also assembled.

In 1899. S.O. Makarov constructed the first powered ice breaker, "Ermak", on which he attempted to reach the North Pole. In 1897-1899, scientists from several different countries aboard the Belgian research vessel, "Belgica," accomplished the first wintering-over in the ice of Antarctic Region.

In Russia, France, the USA and in other countries, the organisation of the first scientific establishments for research of the seas and oceans were begun. Marine biological research stations were established in Sevastopol in 1872 and on the Murmansk coast in 1881.

Collections of biological and geological samples from depths of the World Ocean during 19th century expeditions caused one of the founders of modern Oceanography, Prince Albert I of Monaco, to propose the creation of a General Bathymetric Chart of Oceans (GEBCO) at the VII International Geographical Congress in 1899. The first issue of this series of charts, at a scale of 1:10,000,000 on 24 sheets, was printed and distributed in 1903. It has been subsequently been updated and periodically reissued, the last time between 1978-1982. These charts are extremely important for learning about the Ocean. With the 1917 publication of his book, "Oceanography," Yu. M. Shokal'skiy, one of the founders of the new science of the Ocean, compiled all of the theoretical and observed information known about the World Ocean up until that time.
 
 

The broad use of electronic echosounders on research vessels and radio-location of ships at sea in the 1920-1930 time period permitted the acquisition of a great amount of information about bottom depths and relief. A vast underwater terrain, containing mountains, ridges, plains and deep canyons, more spectacular than those above the sea, was now unveiled to researchers for the first time.

During this period, the importance of learning about the seas and oceans has become obvious to many countries. In 1921, PLAVMORNIN - a floating marine institute, was created in Soviet Russia. Between 1921 and 1924, the research ship, "Persey" made numerous voyages of exploration in the Arctic Ocean.

"Persey" became the a cradle of domestic oceanography. Aboard her, a group of brilliant scientists, among them, N.N. Zubov, M.V. Klenova, S.V. Bruevich, V.S. Samoilenko and L.A. Zenkevich, developed their skills and expertise in Oceanography.
 
 

 Between 1925 and 1927, German scientists aboard the research vessel, "Meteor," investigated the Atlantic Ocean in great detail. Measurements of surface and deep water movements were collected, and sea floor relief measurements revealed significant variations in depth for the first time.

At the beginning of the 1930s, intensive efforts to master the Northern Sea Route began, with the help of ice-breaking vessels "Sibiryakov", "Georgiy Sedov", "Fedor Litke" and others.

In 1937 drifting ice stations were established on the polar sea ice-pack by a team of four Soviet Scientists, I.D. Papanin, E.T. Krenkel', P.P. Shirshov and E.K. Fedorov, who were the first to do long-term, scientific research on the frozen Arctic Ocean.

After the end of the Second World War, exploration of the Oceans increased immeasurably. It became very obvious that without a deep knowledge of the nature of the Ocean, it would be impossible to utilise its great resources, and to make weather forecasts. Research of the physics, chemistry, geology and biology of the Ocean were given a high priority in the first years after World War II. Around-the-world oceanographic expeditions by the Danish research vessel, "Galathea," and the Swedish research vessel, "Albatross," were completed in the tradition of the "Challenger".
 
 

 At the end of the 1940s, a network of weather observation stations aboard ships was established in the North Atlantic Ocean for the maintenance and safety of ship and aircraft navigation. Until recently, these floating meteorological stations continuously transmitter observations about the weather and sea-state conditions in the Ocean.

At the beginning of the 1950s, the French oceanographer, J. Y. Cousteau, aboard his research vessel "Calypso," used newly developed underwater engineering techniques to show the rich diversity of the Ocean. Films and books produced and written by Cousteau have entertained many people.
 
 

Between the 1940-70s, some of the greatest research cruises in the history of Ocean Science were conducted by Soviet scientists aboard the famous research vessels, "Vityaz'" and "Mikhail Lomonosov", and by American scientists on the research vessels "Chain", "Atlantis", "Vema", "Eltanin". From the materials and information collected on these and other expeditions, numerous books and papers were written, and charts and atlases were created. Our knowledge of the Ocean has been greatly increased by the contributions of eminent Soviet and foreign scientists such as, V.G. Bogorov, V.V. Shuleykin, V.G. Kort, P.L. Bezrukov, R. Revelle, B. Heezen, H. Sverdrup, H. Stommel and others.
 
 

 In the USSR, extensive investigations of the Earth's magnetic field were conducted by Soviet scientists beginning at the end of the 1950s, on a specially constructed non-magnetic vessel - the schooner "Zarya".

Significant developments in electronics engineering, automation and robotics, and telemechanics raised levels of scientific research to new heights during those three decades.

Non-magnetic schooner "Zarya"