Case studies

Maine, USA: With the growing popularity of adventure tourism in recent years, visitors to a group of over 3000 different islands, most of which are publicly owned have been increasing steadily. Though recognising the economic benefits such an increase in tourism brings to the region, tour guides and other island stakeholders are growing concerned about the potential associated ecological long-term impacts. Thus, the Maine Island Trail Association and the Maine Bureau of Parks and Lands together with island stakeholders have developed individual carrying capacities for camping on 36 public islands. Carrying capacity information for each individual information is posted through the use of signs and visitors are asked to seek alternative sites once the carrying capacity has been reached.
Seeing as these carrying capacities, in effect since 2000, are not enforceable on any of the islands they are considered to be only guidelines. However, several groups have voluntarily modified their behaviours to comply with these new guidelines. Area guides for example have reduced the size of their groups to meet capacity limits - though this means a decrease in their revenues. In addition, members of the Maine Association of Sea Kayaking Guides and Instructors have started to share itineraries and co- ordinate trips so as to keep within suggested island capacity limits.

Dominican Republic: Grupo Punta Cana, a resort in the Dominican Republic, offers an example of how to combine catering to luxury-class tourists with conservation. When developing the resort, developers set aside 10,000 hectares of land as a nature reserve and native fruit tree garden. It includes 11 fresh water springs surrounded by a subtropical forest where many species of unusual Caribbean flora and fauna thrive in their natural habitat. Guests can explore a 'nature path' that leads from the beach to the resort through mangroves, and fresh water lagoons. Additional conservation efforts include:

• Reforestation of some parts of the reserve that had been logged for mahogany and other trees in the past Establishment of a biodiversity laboratory run by Cornell University
• Implementation of other environmentally protective policies such as programmes to protect the offshore barrier reefs and the recycling of wastewater for irrigation purposes
• The development of a new golf course planted with a hybrid grass that not only can be irrigated with seawater but also requires less than half the usual amounts of fertiliser and pesticides.

San Mateo County, USA: The Fitzgerald Marine Reserve, located in San Mateo County along the coast of California is home to a great variety of marine species. One of the main recreation and educational attractions of the reserve are its numerous tidepools that are accessible during low tide. Visitors to the reserve have caused damage to the intertidal fauna and flora through trampling and collection of organisms. In order to study these impacts various parts of the reserve were closed to visitors. Upon comparison of visited and closed areas researchers found that species recovery varied. Recovery rates for some forms of seaweed and algae were relatively predictable, while recovery for other species was much slower than anticipated. Thus recommendations were made to close off large areas of the reserve to visitors for long periods of time (10 years) in order to allow for a sufficient recovery period. In order to make such closures possible relevant legislation from the State (it's state owned reserve) would have to be put in place. However, as public opposition is likely to be strong other alternatives such as limits on the size of groups visiting the reefs, visitor access fees, and an advance-reservation requirement for reef visitors are being considered.